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2015v1.0

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Sheep, Goat, and
Cervid Medicine

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Sheep, Goat, and
Cervid Medicine
THIRD EDITION
Editors


David G. Pugh, BSA, DVM, MS, MAG,
DACT, DACVN, DACVM
Owner
Large Animal Medicine
Southern Traxx Veterinary Services
Waverly, Alabama, United States

A. N. Baird, DVM, MS, DACVS
Professor of Surgery, Large Animal Chief-of-Staff
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, United States

Misty A. Edmondson, DVM, MS, DACT
Associate State Veterinarian
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries
Montgomery, Alabama, United States

Thomas Passler, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Associate Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine
Auburn, Alabama, United States
With 249 illustrations

Edinburgh  London  New York  Oxford
Philadelphia  St Louis  Sydney 2021

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© 2021, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
First edition 2002
Second edition 2012
SHEEP, GOAT, AND CERVID MEDICINE, THIRD EDITION 
Copyright © 2021 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-0-323-62463-3

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notice
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. Because of rapid advances
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the material herein.
Cover photos of goats and sheep courtesy of Kim Benson
ISBN: 978-0-323-62463-3

Content Strategist: Jennifer Catando
Content Development Specialist: Kim Benson

Project Manager: Manchu Mohan
Design: Brian Salisbury
Marketing Manager: Bergen Farthing

Printed in China
Last digit is the print number:  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

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For my parents, Terry and the late Jack Pugh, who taught Helen, Joel, and me
to love the Lord, work hard, and try our best.
For my wife, partner, and best friend, Ms. Jayne Moore Pugh, who taught our
three children the same ideas for life.
For our three wonderful children, Rebekah, Natalie, and Dylan, their spouses,
Brent, Aaron, and Chasity, and our four grandchildren, Ella, Eli, Layne, and Leah,
all of whom we are so very proud.
For the Lord, who has given me a multitude of blessings.
Keep the faith.
David G. Pugh
To the memory of my parents Aubrey and Arline, who taught me to always give
my best and that with opportunity comes responsibility. I hope they would be proud.
To Debra, my love and my life, who graciously agreed to sacrifice time while I tackled
another book.
To our children, Taylor (Purdue DVM 2021), Tanner (Casper College 2017, Fightin’
Texas Aggie 2019), and Kaycee (TBD 2024), who have given us many great memories
and the hope of many more to come.
Thank you to my great friend of over 30 years, David Pugh, for inviting me to
participate in this project and his never-ending work to make this book the best
it could be.

And thanks to God, through which all this is possible.
A. N. Baird
To my parents, Barbara Fechner and the late Hans Passler, for their love and emotional,
moral, and financial support. They instilled in me the work ethic, perseverance, and
desire to succeed in all tasks large or small.
To my wife Nicole and son William. It is their love and smiles that I look forward
to when I come home every day. I would be lost without you and appreciate your
support of the extracurricular activities in my career!
And to my host family, Roger, Peggy, Nathan, Nick, and Nora Borgmeyer
and their respective spouses and children, who have always treated me like their
own and have fostered my desire to become a veterinarian. They successfully turned
a city slicker into a country boy!
Thomas Passler
To my parents, John and Priscilla Abrams, who taught me, John,
and Kristy the importance of family, the value of hard work, and to always
do our best in everything.
To my husband, Jason, for always pushing me to follow my dreams
and for giving me mine.
To our two amazing children, Wyatt and Laken, who make everything worthwhile.
We are so proud of you both and thank God for you every day.
To my teacher, mentor and friend, David Pugh, for all of the wonderful veterinary
and life lessons and for all of the fun along the way. Thank you for all that you have
done to help me. I will be forever grateful and will always Keep the Faith.
Misty A. Edmondson

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List of Contributors

The editors would like to acknowledge and offer grateful thanks for the input of all previous edition contributors, without whom this
new edition would not have been possible.

A. N. Baird, DVM, MS, DACVS
Professor of Surgery, Large Animal Chief-of-Staff
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette
Indiana
United States

Professor
American Institute for Goat Research
Langston University, Langston
Oklahoma
United States

Jenna E. Bayne, DVM, PhD, DACVIM (LA)
Clinical Assistant Professor
Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine
Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames
Iowa
United States

Misty A. Edmondson, DVM, MS, DACT
Associate State Veterinarian
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries,
Montgomery

Alabama
United States

Kenneth R. Brown, JD, DVM
Program Director
Veterinary Services
Rural Veterinary Outreach, Bell
Florida
United States

Virginia R. Fajt, DVM, PhD
Clinical Professor
Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology
Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine
and Biomedical Sciences, College Station
Texas
United States

Chris Cebra, VMD, MA, MS, DACVIM
Department Chair, Clinical Sciences
Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State
University, Corvallis
Oregon
United States

Eric J. Fish, DVM, PhD, DACVP
Clinical Pathologist
IDEXX Laboratories
Westbrook
Maine

United States

Margaret Cebra, VMD, DACVIM
Corvallis
Oregon
United States
Manuel F. Chamorro, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM
Assistant Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Nar Kaji Gurung, PhD, PAS, DACAN
Associate Professor
Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee
Alabama
United States
Affiliate Professor
Department of Animal Sciences
Auburn University, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Lionel J. Dawson, BVSc, MS, DACT
Professor
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
Oklahoma

United States

Meredyth Jones, DVM, MS, DACVIM
Associate Professor, Food Animal Medicine and Surgery
Large Animal Clinical Sciences
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
Oklahoma
United States
vii

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viii

 

Contributors

President
Large Animal Consulting & Education, Perkins
Oklahoma
United States
Richard J. McMullen Jr., DVM, DACVO, DECVO
Associate Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States
Matt Miesner, DVM, MS, DACVIM (LAIM)

Associate Clinical Professor
Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Kansas State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Manhattan
Kansas
United States
Roger Merkel, BS, MS, PhD
American Institute for Goat Research
Langston University, Langston
Oklahoma
United States
Benjamin W. Newcomer, DVM, PhD, DACVPM
(Epidemiology), DACVIM, DABT
Associate Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States
Daniel K. Newhard†, DVM
Cardiology Resident
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States

David G. Pugh, BSA, DVM, MS, MAG, DACT, DACVN,
DACVM
Owner
Large Animal Medicine
Southern Traxx Veterinary Services, Waverly
Alabama

United States
Emily Reppert, DVM, MS, DACVIM
Assistant Professor
Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Kansas State University College of Veterinary
Medicine, Manhattan
Kansas
United States
Jessica Rush, DVM, MS, DACT
Assistant Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Food & Fiber Animal Services, J.T. Vaughan Large Animal
Teaching Hospital, College of Veterinary Medicine
Auburn University, Auburn
Alabama
United States
Clifford F. Shipley, DVM, DACT
Associate Clinical Professor Emeritus
Veterinary Clinical Medicine
University of Illinois, Urbana
Illinois
United States
Lindsay A. Starkey, DVM, PhD, DACVM (Parasit)
Assistant Professor
Pathobiology
Auburn University, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Thomas Passler, DVM, PhD, DACVIM

Associate Professor
Department of Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Kelly M. Still Brooks, DVM, MPH, DACVPM,
DABVP-Food Animal
Assistant Professor
Dairy and Livestock Production Medicine
Colorado State University, Fort Collins
Colorado
United States

Paul J. Plummer, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DECSRHM
Executive Director
National Institute for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and
Education, Ames
Iowa
United States

Jenna Workman Stockler, BS, DVM
Graduate Teaching Assistant
Clinical Sciences
Auburn University, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Jenny Pope, DVM, DACVP
Veterinary Pathologist

Thompson-Bishop-Sparks State Diagnostic Laboratory
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Ricardo M. Stockler, DVM, MS, DABVP Dairy Practice
Assistant Clinical Professor of Farm Animal Ambulatory
Clinical Sciences
Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States

†

Deceased

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  Contributors

Sandra D. Taylor, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Associate Professor
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette
Indiana
United States

Paul H. Walz, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM
Professor

Department of Pathobiology
Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Heather Walz, DVM, PhD, DACVP
Veterinary Pathologist
Thompson-Bishop-Sparks State Diagnostic Laboratory
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries, Auburn
Alabama
United States

Ann B. Weil, MS, DVM, DACVAA
Clinical Professor of Veterinary Anesthesiology
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette
Indiana
United States

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ix


Preface

The first edition of Sheep and Goat Medicine was published in
2002, with me as the only editor and primary author. The second
edition, published in 2012, was improved over the first edition by
asking Dr. Baird to also be an editor. His work helped the content

tremendously. In this, the third edition of the book Sheep and
Goat Medicine, we have added Cervid and changed the name to
Sheep, Goat, and Cervid Medicine. This new rendition, with the
addition of cervids (deer, elk, etc.), came about by way of a phone
conversation in 2015 with Dr. Baird, when I asked him, “If
Elsevier asks us to re-edit/write ‘The Book’ again, how would you
change it?” He said, “Add deer and other cervids, as farm raising
those critters is becoming a big industry here in the Midwest
(USA).” Great recommendation! I had an interest in cervids, as
part of my MS degree dealt with mercury toxicity in WTD
(White Tailed Deer), but I remained very limited in my cervid
knowledge base. I also had a difficult time finding readily accessible information that could help me with cervid medicine for our
university practice. In late 2016, Ms. Jennifer Flynn-Briggs, of
Elsevier, contacted me about editing/writing a new edition of the
book. We discussed the addition of cervids and settled on the term
“Cervid Medicine,” as the book Nutrient Requirements of Small
Ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (2007),
NAS/NRC had set the precedence to use that term to encompass
many of the “cervidae” family that may be encountered by practicing veterinarians. Once they agreed to that change, I told the
folks at Elsevier I would only take on the task if Dr. Baird would
reprise his role from the second edition, and if we could add two
other exceptional large-animal veterinarians as editors, Drs. Misty
Edmondson (Professor of Large Animal Medicine, Auburn University) and Thomas Passler (Associate Professor and Food Animal
Medicine Section Chief ). Like Dr. Baird, both Drs. Edmondson
and Passler had superbly written chapters in the second edition of
this book. Both these clinicians, like Dr. Baird, had a wealth of
small ruminant knowledge and experience. Dr. Passler’s PhD was
in virology of white-tailed deer, and Dr. Edmondson had been a
food animal clinician at Auburn University’s CVM (College of
Veterinary Medicine) from 2004 to 2018 and she had assumed

the role as the predominant small ruminant veterinarian much of
that time. Thankfully, the folks from Elsevier agreed. We formatted
the editing process, where each editor would plan, pick new authors
where needed, oversee the writing, and edit the final version of
certain chapters. Dr. Baird oversaw Chapters 3, 4, 10, 11, and 18
(Fluid Therapy and Parenteral Nutrition, Oral-Esophageal Diseases,
Diseases of the Integumentary System, Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System, and Anesthetic and Pain Management, respectively) and contributed to the surgery sections for each chapter;
Dr. Edmondson oversaw Chapters 5, 8, 12, 15, and 16 (Diseases
of the Gastrointestinal System, Theriogenology of Sheep, Goats, and
Cervids, Diseases of the Urinary System, Diseases of the Mammary
Gland, Diseases of the Hematologic, Immunologic, and Lymphatic
Systems [Multisystem Diseases], respectively); Dr. Passler oversaw

Chapters 7, 9, 13, 14, and 17 (Diseases of the Respiratory System,
Diseases of the Endocrine System, Diseases of the Neurologic
System, Diseases of the Eye, and Diseases of the Cardiovascular
System, respectively); and I oversaw Chapters 1, 2, 6, 19, 20,
Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 (Physical Examination, Handling,
and Restraint of Sheet, Goats, and Cervids, Goats, and Cervids,
Feeding and Nutrition, Internal Parasites of Sheep, Goats, and
Cervids, Herd and Flock Health, Field Necropsy and Diagnostic
Tests, Commonly Used Drugs and Vetrinary Feed Directive in
Sheep, Goats, and Cervids, and Reference Intervals and Conversions). The authors were charged with re-writing where needed,
updating all information, and adding cervids to each chapter and
the appendices. In addition to the editors, we asked Dr. Cliff
Shipley (2017 ACT (American College of Theriogenologists) Theriogenologist of the Year, Professor of the University of Illinois, and
noted small ruminant veterinarian) to help us add some of the deer
and other cervid information to Chapters 1, 4, 8, 10, 11, and 19,
and he did a great job. Dr. Kelley Steury, a diagnostic specialist at
the Al State Diagnostic Laboratory, found many of the figures used

in multiple chapters, mainly of white-tailed deer. We have added
new authors and/or co-authors to all chapters except Chapters 3
and 13. Chapter 20 (Necropsy) was added to the second edition,
written by Dr. John Roberts (Auburn University), and was an excellent tool for use on necropsy in sheep and goats. In this third
edition, Drs. Heather Walz and Jenny Pope covered necropsy on
sheep and goats very well and aimed much of the new material and
many of the figures toward cervid and field necropsy. In a very farsighted and novel move, Drs. Walz and Pope wrote their chapter
with the potential use of all the editions. We added many very
knowledgeable and experienced clinicians. I have always had a
(bad?) habit of wanting to learn from new folks, and the authors.
I am very blessed to have been able to work with three awesome
and very talented editors. The book would not have happened if it
were not for Drs. Baird, Edmondson, and Passler. They all are such
a credit to the veterinary profession, and it was a joy to be able to
watch, read, and learn from them. I was able to read the entire book
after all authors, then editors, had finished each chapter. I learned
so much, and hope all the readers/users of this book do, as well.
Finally, I would be remiss if I didn’t mention several clinicians
who, either directly or indirectly, contributed to this undertaking.
Dr. Christine Navarre (chapter author in the first two editions);
the late Drs. Bob Carson, Alan Heath, and Tom Powe; and
Drs. Dwight Wolfe, Darrel Rankins, Jim Wenzel, Gatz Riddel,
Debra Taylor, Julie Gard, and Hui-Chu Lin all had a great and
positive influence on the all three editions of this book.

x

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Keep the Faith

David G. Pugh, BSA, DVM, MS, MAG,
DACT, DACVN, DACVM
Southern Traxx Veterinary Services
Waverly, AL 36879


Contents

  1

  2
  3
  4
  5

Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint
of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids, 1
Ricardo M. Stockler, Jenna Workman Stockler, Clifford F.
Shipley, and David G. Pugh
Feeding and Nutrition, 15

Nar Kaji Gurung, Jessica Rush, and David G. Pugh

Fluid Therapy and Parenteral Nutrition, 45
Sandra D. Taylor and A. N. Baird
Oral-Esophageal Diseases, 51

A. N. Baird and Clifford F. Shipley

Diseases of the Gastrointestinal System, 63


Jenna E. Bayne and Misty A. Edmondson

  6

Internal Parasites of Sheep, Goats,
and Cervids, 97
Lindsay A. Starkey and David G. Pugh

  7

Diseases of the Respiratory System, 119
Paul J. Plummer, Kelly M. Still Brooks, and Jenna E. Bayne

  8

Theriogenology of Sheep, Goats,
and Cervids, 141
Misty A. Edmondson and Clifford F. Shipley

  9

14 Diseases of the Eye, 349
Richard J. McMullen Jr. and Thomas Passler
15 Diseases of the Mammary Gland, 385
Paul J. Plummer, Kelly M. Still Brooks, and Misty A.
Edmondson
16 Diseases of the Hematologic, Immunologic,
and Lymphatic Systems (Multisystem
Diseases), 405

Benjamin W. Newcomer, Chris Cebra, Manuel F.
Chamorro, Emily Reppert, Margaret Cebra, and Misty A.
Edmondson
17 Diseases of the Cardiovascular System, 439
Daniel K. Newhard, Jenna E. Bayne, and Thomas Passler
18 Anesthetic and Pain Management, 461
Ann B. Weil and A. N. Baird
19 Herd and Flock Health, 479
Lionel J. Dawson, Clifford F. Shipley, Roger Merkel,
and David G. Pugh
20 Field Necropsy and Diagnostic Tests, 499
Heather Walz, Jenny Pope, and David G. Pugh

Diseases of the Endocrine System, 209

Benjamin W. Newcomer and Manuel F. Chamorro

10 Diseases of the Integumentary System, 221
A. N. Baird and Clifford F. Shipley
11 Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System, 251
A. N. Baird and Clifford F. Shipley
12 Diseases of the Urinary System, 281
Meredyth Jones, Matt Miesner, and Misty A. Edmondson

Appendix 1  Commonly Used Drugs and Veterinary Feed
Directive in Sheep, Goats, and Cervids, 517
Virginia R. Fajt, Kenneth R. Brown,
and David G. Pugh
Appendix 2  Reference Intervals and Conversions, 539
Eric J. Fish and David G. Pugh

Index, 545

13 Diseases of the Neurologic System, 311
Thomas Passler and Paul H. Walz

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1

Physical Examination,
Handling, and Restraint of
Sheep, Goats, and Cervids
RICARDO M. STOCKLER, JENNA WORKMAN STOCKLER,
CLIFFORD F. SHIPLEY, AND DAVID G. PUGH

Introduction

Visual Examination

In general, there are three parts to any physical examination:
history, distance examination, and the actual “hands-on” systematic examination. This three-part approach is true for individual
patients and for a herd or flock evaluation.
A systematic method allows the practitioner to assess all body
systems in an organized and comprehensive manner. The development of a problem list and their localization to a body system in

conjunction with a thorough history and understanding of the
patient`s husbandry and the farm management practices will undoubtedly offer enough evidence for the practitioner to create a
list of acceptable differential diagnoses. All of the aforementioned
(history, physical examination, and farm management practices)
will lead to a diagnosis, the institution of a treatment plan, and
improvement of the herd or flock management practices.

Initial evaluation of the group or individual is critical; at this time
the practitioner has the ability to appreciate individual animal or
group behavior and interaction in their natural environment.
Small ruminants (sheep, goats, and cervidae) are prey animals by
nature and want to remain with the group even if they are sick.
The veterinarian should be suspect of those animals that segregate
themselves, do not interact as usual (pets), or are physically unable
to ambulate. It should not be assumed that all animals within the
herd or flock are well just because the individual patient appears
to be keeping up with the rest of the group.
Visual examination allows the veterinarian to observe any of
the following: abnormal respiratory pattern, the presence of ocular or nasal discharge, lethargy, active diarrhea or a stained perineal area, rumen tympany, rumination activity via cud chewing,
lameness, swollen joints, and submandibular edema (“bottle
jaw”). Further assessments can be made related to body condition
score, conformation, and mental status. Mentation and neurological assessment/clinical signs not limited to depression, head
pressing, opisthotonos, strabismus, and circling (see Chapter 13)
are syndromes commonly noted in small ruminants with many
disease processes.
Body condition scoring of both the herd or flock and the individual animal is a great tool to prompt more attention to on-farm
problems, such as inappropriate dietary management and internal
parasitism. Both distance examination and hands-on palpation are
necessary for complete body condition scoring (BCS) of the herd
or flock (Table 1.1; see Chapter 19). Cervids are often scored

similar to sheep and goats but, to the authors’ knowledge, no official BCS system has been proposed or accepted for white-tailed
deer or mule deer. A score from 1 to 5 is also used, taking into
consideration overall appearance, fat deposits over the ribs, hook
and pin bones and over-the-chest area (Table 1.1). Using a scoring
system similar to sheep would be acceptable assuming that the
parameters are clearly defined. A cervid’s hair coat will usually not
hide body condition to a great extent, so a practiced eye should be
able to determine with some accuracy a BCS for the individual

History
Questioning the owner or farmhand for basic information such as
breed, age, sex, production level, and purpose (pet, wool, leather,
meat, milk, antler size, etc.) is imperative. Medical history including when the perceived problem started, initial signs and symptoms, duration of the current disease, core vaccination history, as
well as reproduction and production status are critical questions
to ascertain the answers to. On-farm treatment details regarding
antimicrobials administered, amount and route of administration,
and response to therapy are important moving forward with the
treatment of the disease. The authors realize owner experience and
ability to provide specific details vary significantly from farm to
farm, however, any information gathered is known to be relevant
and should be taken into consideration. Questions regarding
housing and detailed dietary routine are also important aspects to
consider in any individual clinical case. When assessing a herd or
flock problem, full understanding of overall husbandry (housing,
feeding, animal movement, population density, etc.), as well as
herd health information (see Chapter 19) are imperative and will
further guide the veterinarian towards a solid diagnosis.

1


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2

C H A P T E R 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

TABLE
Body Condition Scoring of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids.
1.1

Body Condition Score

Spinous Processes

Transverse Processes

Loin Eye Muscle

Fat Cover Over
Loin Eye Muscle

Score 1

Sharp and prominent

Sharp

Shallow


None

Score 2

Sharp and prominent

Smooth, slightly rounded

Medium depth

Little

Score 3

Smooth and rounded

Smooth, well covered

Full

Medium

Score 4

Palpable as firm line with pressure

Not palpable

Full


Thick

Score 5

Not palpable

Not palpable

Very full

Very thick

• Fig. 1.1  Distance observation as an assessment of overall health of the flock/herd. Body condition scoring
and disposition of the individuals are evaluated during this time.

animal as well as for the herd. An attentive observer may identify
additional sick animals that may have initially been overlooked by
the owner/producer (Figure 1.1).
Farmed cervids may also have rough hair coats from “barbering.” This is a condition that may occur when one or more
animals eat/chew/pick at others’ hair. It may manifest itself as one
or all animals in a group. Careful observation of the pattern and
frequency of the hair loss will lead to a proper diagnosis. Hair is
broken or pulled out and there is no itch involved. The cervids
also cannot pull hair where they can’t reach (head if self-inflicted)
or where they resist such activity from others.
Once the thorough history is gathered and a focused observation performed, the clinician than proceeds to the medical
systematic “hands-on” physical examination.

Systematic Physical Examination
Several approaches may be taken to accomplish this step. Consistency in execution of the examination makes it extremely doubtful the practitioner will overlook any system. Having knowledge

of the normal physiological parameters is imperative. Table 1.2
shows a comprehensive summary of values the practitioners is
expected to remember.
For biosecurity purposes, the veterinarian and assistant(s) must
always wear gloves and protective clothing when handling animals. Human protection against zoonotic pathogens and the
transmission of communicable diseases between cohorts of
animals and between farms must be conveyed to assistants and
instituted by the attending veterinarian.

Head and Neck Examination
Objectives:
1. Symmetry
2. Skin condition
3. Oral and ocular examination
Evaluation of symmetry of the head, neck, ears, eyes, and
muzzle is important as potential abnormalities due to congenital
defects, trauma, or neurological disease may be diagnosed. Swelling under the chin is frequently consistent with submandibular
edema, often associated with hypoproteinemia associated with
protein-losing enteropathy due to heavy parasitism. Masses that
lead to abscessation and are adjacent to a peripheral lymph node,
submandibular or pre-scapular may be linked to Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis infection. Swelling at the level of the larynx may
be an indication of goiter caused by an enlarged thyroid gland
(see Chapter 9). Horns and wattles should also be evaluated as
they are normal structures in many breeds. A central whorl of hair
is usually found in polled goat breeds, whereas horned breeds may
have palpable horn buds with overlying whorls of hair. Wattles
can be present in both males and females.
Overall skin and hair or wool condition must be evaluated. Alopecia, the presence of ectoparasites (lice, mites, and ticks), dermatitis
(see Chapter 10), and location of the lesions assist the veterinarian

in making a diagnosis and guiding further diagnostic testing. Presence of crusting or vesicular lesions at the mucocutaneous junctions
of the face are often a sign of contagious ecthyma, a zoonotic disease.
Oral examination is conducted with the help of a flashlight and
speculum; in some cases sedation may be warranted. Evaluating for

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CHAPTER 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

TABLE
Normal Physiological Parameters of Sheep and Goats.
1.2

Parameter

Sheep

Lambs

Goats

Kids

Cervidsa

Rectal temperature (°F)

102–103.5


102.5–104

100.5–103.5

102–104

99–106

Rectal temperature (°C)

39–39.7

39.5–40

Pulse (beats per minute)

70–80

80–130

70–90

90–150

85–225

Respiration (breaths per minute)

12–20


20–40

15–30

20–40

16–20

Rumen contraction rate
(per minute)

1–2

–

1–2

–

1–3

Puberty (months)

5–12

–

4–12

–


6–16

38–39.7

39.5–40

37.5–41.6

Estrus (hours)

36

–

12–24

–

24

Estrus cycle (days)

16–17

–

18–23

–


17–22

a

In cervids, the physiological parameters vary greatly depending on environmental factors and the circumstances of those parameters, e.g., during sedation or anesthesia.

structural abnormalities (e.g., presence of cleft palate), teeth condition, presence of prognathism and brachygnathism, and mucosal
lesions such as vesicles or ulcerations is easily achieved during the
examination. The presence of a foul oral odor could be an indication of disease associated with the oral cavity, gastrointestinal
system (specifically the rumen), or respiratory tract. Teeth eruption
and wear patterns can be easily used to estimate the age of sheep
and goats (Table 1.3, Figure 1.2). Conversely, cervidae are mostly
aged via eruption and wear of the premolars and molars. Typically,
eruption of premolars starts at 1.5 years wear and full eruption and
wear of molars occurs by 3.5 years. Wear is then evaluated until all
premolars and molars reach the gum line at approximately 10 years
of age and various wear patterns of the cusp and dentine help to
determine the age of the animal (Table 1.3).
Detailed aging information is available from most wildlife and
hunting agencies. The most accurate way to determine age is to
submit to a laboratory for examination of annular rings.
The use of this method to age the animal becomes less accurate
once all of the permanent incisors have erupted and are in wear.
Abnormal wear patterns or poor dentition (loose teeth, absence of
teeth, and tooth root abscess) may be contributors to a chronic
weight loss complaint, especially in situations of competition for
food (see Chapter 4).
The assessment of hydration status and FAMACHA scoring is
accomplished during the ocular examination. Eyeball recession

and eyelid skin tenting are the two reliable methods to subjectively
determine the hydration status of the animal. FAMACHA scoring
(see Chapter 6, Box 6.2 & Figure 6.2 and Chapter 19) is recommended to be part of the routine care of any herd or flock as an
important aspect of parasite management and control. The conjunctival membrane color is used to estimate systemic perfusion.
(Figure 1.3). Oral mucous membranes should not be used for this
assessment as many breeds have a pigmented oral cavity and the
rough nature of the mouth may portray an erroneous estimation.
As a general rule, pale membranes may indicate anemia, most
likely due to intestinal parasitism (Haemonchus contortus infection)
or coccidiosis. Jaundice or icteric mucous membranes may indicate
a hemolytic crisis or liver disease, such as copper toxicity, and
congested (red in color) membranes may be indicative of
fever, septicemia, or toxemia.

TABLE Estimating Age of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids
1.3
by Teeth Eruption.

Estimating Age of
Sheep and Goats Using
the Incisors (I)

Estimating Age of Cervids
Using the Premolar and
Molar Eruptionsa

Deciduous

Eruption Age


Fawn–6 months old

I1

Birth–1 week

Five or fewer teeth present and the
third premolar (tooth 3) has three
cusps

I2

1–2 weeks

1½ years of age

I3

2–3 weeks

Tooth 3 (third premolar) has three
cusps. Tooth 6 has erupted and
is slightly visible just above the
gum line

I4

3–4 weeks

2½ years of age


Permanent

Lingual crest on all molars are sharp
and pointed. Tooth 3 now has two
cusps. Back cusp of tooth 6 is
sharp and pointed

I1

1–1.5 years

4½ years of age

I2

1.5–2 years

Lingual crest on tooth 4 rounded off,
and in tooth 5 blunt. The dentine
in tooth 4 is twice as wide as the
enamel. The dentine in tooth 5 is
wider than the enamel.

I3

2.5–3 years

6½ years of age


I4

3.5–4 years

Tooth 4 is worn completely smooth;
no enamel ridge should be visible
in the center of tooth 4. Small
enamel ridge will be present in
center of tooth 5 and tooth 6.
Lingual crest on tooth 5 is almost
worn away and rounded in tooth 6

a
Cain and Wallace: A Guide to Age Determination of White-Tailed Deer Austin, TX: Texas Parks
and Wildlife, 2003.

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C H A P T E R 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

•  Fig. 1.2  The practitioner may insert the index finger inside of the sheep/goat mouth, laterally, and with
the other hand lower the bottom lip allowing exposure of the incisors. The approximate age may be
determined according to Table 1.3.

• Fig. 1.3  To FAMACHA score sheep and goats, the practitioner gently pushes the upper eyelid medially

and rolls the lower eyelid ventrally to access conjunctival membrane color.

Cardiovascular Examination
Objectives:
1. Auscultate both left and right side skin conditions
2. Presence of jugular vein distention
3. Peripheral perfusion
4. Peripheral edema
Auscultation of both the left and right side of the thorax is
imperative. Assessment of rate, rhythm, character, and intensity
of the heart sounds should be performed. Auscultation of the
heart is accomplished by moving the stethoscope over the location of the valves and determining the point of maximal intensity. The pulmonic valve (low third intercostal space, below
the elbow), the aortic valve (high fourth intercostal space, above
the elbow), and the left (mitral) atrioventricular (AV) valve (at the
low fifth intercostal space, at the level of the elbow) are found on
the left chest. The right AV valve or tricuspid valve (high fourth

intercostal space, above the elbow) should be auscultated on the
right side.
As a general rule, normal heart rate should vary between 70
and 90 beats per minute in adults and between 80 and 130 beats
per minute in neonates. There is physiological variation according
to environmental conditions (i.e., ambient temperature) and situations that cause hyperexcitability (i.e., aggressive handling or
movement). Anemia, murmurs, pain, heart failure, and infectious
and inflammatory processes are certain conditions known to
effect the heart rate.
Observing for jugular pulses and palpation of distal appendages, such as tip of the ears and limbs are indicators of appropriate
peripheral perfusion when warm. Distention of the jugular veins
and the presence of pulsations may indicate heart failure.
Peripheral edema is known to be consistent with either hypoproteinemia or congestive heart failure and warrants further investigation (see Chapter 17).


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CHAPTER 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

Respiratory Evaluation
Objectives:
1. Observe and record rate at a distance first
2. Auscultate both left and right side
The clinician must be aware that the respiratory system should
be examined in conjunction with the cardiovascular system and
drawing major conclusions without examining both may impair
the ability to accurately determine a diagnosis.
On average, the normal respiratory rate should vary between
10 and 30 breaths per minute in adults and between 20 and
40 breaths per minute in neonates. The rate can be obtained by
observing the movement of the coastal arch and nostrils from a
distance. In cervids, similar rates to sheep and goats can be expected, however, cervids are highly sensitive to excitement and
may be hard to evaluate except at a distance. Neonates may “hold”
their breath (mule deer fawns especially) when hiding as a reflex
to avoid predators.
As noted for the cardiovascular system, environmental conditions and systemic illness are known to influence respiratory rate
and must be taken into consideration when appropriate. Animals
in apparent respiratory distress, either dyspneic or tachypneic,
with open mouth breathing, flaring the nostrils, abducted elbow
stance, and with excessive abdominal effort must be evaluated
critically and efficiently. Air flow should be symmetric from both
nostrils. Mild, clear, serous nasal discharge is a common finding,
especially in sheep; however, excessive clear to mucoid to purulent

exudate must be explored.
Bilateral auscultation of the lung fields should be performed in
a systematic approach. The margins of the lung fields are as follows: the cranial border is deep to the triceps, the dorsal border
extends from the point of the shoulder to the last rib, and the
caudoventral border arches from the point of the elbow to the last
rib. Bronchial sounds usually are loudest over the craniodorsal
lung fields at the level of the tracheal bifurcation. Generally, tracheal sounds should be absent. When tracheal disease is present,
wheezes can be auscultated, indicating tracheal collapse; obstructive lesions and crackling sounds are characteristic of tracheitis.
Elicitation of a cough can be achieved with minimal compression
of the trachea and pharyngeal region. The normal animal will
cough one to two times, while the diseased patient coughs repeatedly and often with forced effort.
Crackles are auscultated when air moves through inflammatory fluid in the alveoli, whereas wheezes are reverberations of air
moving through inflamed, narrowed airways. One must remember that significant lung pathology may be present and not necessarily appreciated on auscultation. Coughing, nasal discharge,
dyspnea with a fever, and severe open mouth breathing may be
the only indication of lung pathology.
Upper airway diseases, such as rhinitis, tracheitis, foreign body,
and compressive lesions, are usually characterized by a loud,
harsh, dry, nonproductive cough of acute onset. Lower airway
diseases, such as pneumonia, pulmonary edema, lung abscessation, and lungworm infection, are characterized by a chronic, soft,
productive cough. Animals with lower airway disease typically
cough infrequently and will swallow after coughing, which is different from animals with upper airway diseases who typically do
not swallow after coughing.
Cervids can be difficult to assess due to restraint in drop chutes
(poor access) or because they are highly excited. Many that have
respiratory disease may have advanced disease that has consolidated portions of the lung, leading to “dead” spots that show no

5

air movement/sounds. They are poor anesthetic as well, so evaluation is difficult at best. Ultrasound, transtracheal wash, radiographs, and other diagnostic tools can be used as well, but
risk/benefit ratio and economics must be taken into consideration

(see Chapter 7).

Gastrointestinal Examination
Objectives:
1. Examination extends from mouth to rectum
2. Auscultation, palpation, and observation
The gastrointestinal system is one of the largest and most important in the body. Evaluation should be performed in a systematic and stepwise fashion from the mouth to rectum. The mouth
should be examined for the presence of vesicles, ulcerations, swellings, and ptyalism. Inspection of the teeth for wear and soundness
is important, and the upper dental pad should also be evaluated
for evidence of abnormal wear. Although not easy to examine, and
sedation or anesthesia may be necessary for a complete examination, the molars should be sound and present as their role in
mastication of forages before swallowing and in proper cud chewing is critical. The use of a mouth gag and a bright light source is
helpful. It is important to take into consideration that wear patterns may present in different ways and are dependent on the
environmental conditions and primary diet of the herd or flock.
The practitioner can then make a judgment of whether the wear
pattern is abnormal or normal for the living conditions of the
animal. Often, culling of lambs or kids is needed due to poor
dentition.
The neck area is examined via thorough palpation. Masses,
enlarged lymph nodes, or swelling may be causing esophageal
compression and subsequent obstruction/choke. Rumen tympany, ptyalism, bruxism, and pain are common clinical signs that
may be associated with esophageal disease.
It is wise if the clinician examines one side of the animal first,
as this will help to avoid missing any aspect of the examination.
On the left side of the animal, the rumen constitutes the major
forestomach. Due to its size, the rumen may give an asymmetrical
appearance to the abdominal contour favoring a larger “bulge” to
the left side, which is considered normal and is expected. Healthy
rumen striation consists of a gas cap dorsally, fiber mat in the
middle, and fluid (digested ingesta) ventrally. Using the stethoscope, the practitioner should auscultate and perform succussion

(i.e., shaking) of the abdomen. Within the left paralumbar fossa,
rumen contractions can be auscultated in the healthy animal
(sheep, goats, and cervids) at a rate of one to two primary contractions (active rolling of the ingesta) and one secondary rumination
(eructation) per minute. A solid understanding of the individual
or herd/flock dietary management and medical history, along
with a physical examination, helps the practitioner determine the
primary cause of rumen fill. Ballottement of the paralumbar fossa
while listening with the stethoscope is imperative to support abnormal findings related to the striation of the rumen, displaced
abomasum, and ascites. Auscultation of the right paralumbar
fossa will allow the practitioner to evaluate the cecum, spiral colon, and small intestines. Illness associated with of any of these
structures will lead to fluid and gas accumulation and distension
of the viscus in the upper right quadrant. Dilation lower on the
right side of the animal may be related to abomasal impaction,
late gestation, or a severe rumen impaction.
If bilateral abdominal distention is seen, one may suspect vagal
indigestion syndrome (chronic indigestion, failure of the omasal

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C H A P T E R 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

transport, or pyloric stenosis), ileus, or free fluid accumulation.
This fluid accumulation could be caused by diffuse peritonitis,
ascites due to protein losing enteropathy, liver failure, or severe
congestive heart failure.
Body temperature should be taken rectally observing common
biosecurity practices. Normal temperature typically varies from

100.5° F to 103.5° F. In general, sheep tend to have a higher body
temperature than goats, and cervids typically fall in the same
range (101.5° F–102.5° F) with variations due to age, activity
level, and environmental temperature. The practitioner must distinguish between true hyperthermia and a febrile response. A
febrile response is more likely to be associated with an inflammatory or infectious process, whereas hyperthermia is going to be
associated with the location of the patient (e.g., barn, paddock,
pasture, etc.), behavior (e.g., hyperexcitability does increase body
temperature), and environmental conditions (e.g., high temperature and humidity).
The authors would like to stress that obtaining body temperature should be the first procedure to be performed when examining sheep and goats and the results interpreted in conjunction
with other clinical signs.
Fecal consistency and staining of the perineum, tail, and back
of legs is a good way to assess the history of diarrhea. A thorough
history of dietary management and fecal examination (fecal float
or fecal egg count) is the only way the practitioner will reliably
make a diagnosis and then recommend a targeted treatment.
In young stock, the authors recommend full examination of
the umbilical structures both externally and internally. The use of
ultrasound imaging if pain or swelling is found is highly valuable.
Any signs or history of diarrhea in lambs, kids, or fawns must be
addressed quickly as it can be life threatening. Lastly, atresia ani
and atresia coli have been reported in kids and lambs, so the practitioner needs to be sure there is a patent anus and fecal passage
present (see Chapter 5).

Urogenital Examination
Objectives:
1. Examination from a distance
2. History
3. Ultrasound imaging
The examination commences at the external genitalia of both
males and females. In males, the prepuce should be free of adhesions, swelling, or any signs of trauma. The preputial opening

should be evaluated for the presence of crystals, blood, excessive
dryness, scabs, or ulcerations since any of these may be indicative
of urethral calculi, obstructive urolithiasis, or ulcerative posthitis.
Urine samples in both sheep and goats can often be obtained
by briefly occluding the nostrils. Young cervids can be encouraged
to urinate with gentle stimulation. Older cervids that are bottle
raised may be able approached for a “free catch” urine sample.
The penis is difficult to examine without the use of sedation or
anesthesia (cervids). The authors strongly recommend the use of
acepromazine or a benzodiazepine (see Chapters 8, 12, and 18)
for sedation and relaxation. Rams and bucks can be placed in
lateral recumbency or sitting up on their rump (preferred method)
by an assistant, then the practitioner pushes the prepuce caudally
while pushing the sigmoid flexure cranially. Once exteriorized, the
practitioner can hold the penis using gauze. The surface of the
penis should be examined for color, scabs, and any traumatic lesions. Palpation of the penis may reveal the presence of uroliths,
swelling, or a focal area of pain. The urethral process in sheep and

goats should be examined closely for the presence of a urolith or
sandy grit, which may be indicative of urolithiasis or urethral
blockage. Cervids do not have a urethral process.
Frequently, the presentation of a sheep or goat with suspected
urogenital disease involves standing in a stretched out position,
intermittent straining, vocalization, and wagging of the tail when
attempting to urinate. This stance is often confused by owners
and their perception is that the animal is constipated when in all
actuality the animal has a urinary obstruction. History of inability
to urinate followed by relaxation and acute abdominal distention
may indicate rupture of the urinary bladder, whereas caudal ventral edema (often reported by the owner as “broken penis”) may
indicate distal urethral rupture.

It is important to take into consideration, contrary to what is
commonly done in small animal practice, catheterization of the
urethra is difficult in does and ewes owing to the presence of the
urethral diverticulum at the floor of the pelvis and close to impossible in bucks and rams. Multiple anatomic locations in male
anatomy (urethral process, sigmoid flexure, urethral diverticulum)
are difficult to traverse with a catheter. Attempts to pass a urinary
catheter can actually cause more harm due to severe trauma
caused by the procedure.
The testicles are gently palpated to ensure they are not adhered
to the scrotum, and there are no signs of epididymitis, orchitis, and
poor testicular tone, which are often associated with suboptimal
sperm production. In breeding males, the phrase “big is beautiful,
mobility meaningful, resilience respectable, softness suspicious” is
helpful to remember when evaluating males for breeding soundness. In addition, the scrotum should be free of traumatic lesions
with intact skin. Signs of dermatitis due to ectoparasites, frostbite,
or asymmetry are undesirable findings (see Chapter 8).
In females, the labia of the vulva is examined for their color,
size, and presence of discharge. Pale mucous membranes may be
an indication of anemia, whereas hyperemia and swelling may
indicate the onset of estrus or an impending parturition. If calculi
or sandy grit is found attached to the hairs below the urethral
orifice, urolithiasis is suspected and the practitioner must evaluate
further. Reproductive history is important when it comes to
evaluating a potential vaginal or uterine discharge. Color, consistency, and volume are a good start as they may characterize a late
estrus discharge, a postpartum normal lochia, or an infection.
Lochia is considered a normal finding between days 0 and 21 post
parturition. The finding of large protruding vulvar labia or clitoris, or a short anogenital distance is suggestive of an intersex
condition (see Chapter 8).
In both males and females with suspected obstructive urolithiasis, an enlarged bladder may be palpable extending from the
pelvis to the abdomen; in this case, the authors recommend further examination using ultrasound imaging. Caution should be

used when applying manual pressure to the abdomen because
there is a risk of rupturing the bladder and causing more pain to
the patient (see Chapter 12).

Musculoskeletal Examination
Objectives:
1. Examination from a distance
2. History
3. Knowledge of foot conditions
4. Imaging examination
First, posture and locomotion are evaluated at a distance for
both sheep and goats, as well as cervids. The animals are then

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CHAPTER 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

observed as they walk away from and towards the practitioner. It
is important to note that lameness issues often present in a variety
of ways and because of the prey mentality of small ruminants, the
lameness may be very subtle. The patient may prefer to not bear
weight on the limb at rest and use it sparingly while in motion, or
may bear weight at rest and hop on three legs while in motion.
All claws should be observed for appropriate wear, hoof-wall
separation due to white line disease, and defects in the sole. The
interdigital space should be checked for pain, exudate, or a foul
odor. The coronary bands should be observed for pain, swelling,
ulceration, or separation from the foot. Separation of the hoof wall
from the hoof in cervids is a common sequelae to hemorrhagic

disease survivors. All joints should be palpated and checked for
appropriate range of motion. Older and/or heavier small ruminants may have “clicking” within their joints indicating chronic
osteoarthritis or overuse of the joint(s). This may or may not be an
abnormal finding but should be recorded in the medical record.
In young stock, septic joints are typically diagnosed before
swelling is ever a problem. It is an extremely painful condition
affecting one or more joints and likely a sequelae from failure
of passive transfer. Many of these patients present with non–
weight-bearing lameness rather than swelling being noticed at one
or more of the joints.
In goats, hygromas and synovitis secondary to caprine arthritis
encephalitis infection can be differentiated on clinical examination. Hygromas are nonpainful, whereas synovitis typically is a
painful condition.
Fractures must be evaluated immediately. The age of the animal, location of the fracture, and intended purpose (pet or production animal) will allow for an appropriate treatment plan and
prognosis. Prognosis is also easily determined by radiographic
examination (see Chapter 11).

Nervous System Examination
Objectives:
1. History
2. Examination—localizing the lesion
It is imperative for the practitioner to always wear gloves when
interacting with an animal showing neurological disease. In general, the neurological examination should start by obtaining a
thorough history of the patient. The examiner should have a full
understanding of the animal’s diet and behavior within the past
24 to 48 h, housing and environment, new additions to the herd,
travel, and interaction with wildlife.
From a distance, gait, posture, and overall behavior when interacting with herd or flock mates and with humans must be
noted. Known traumatic events must be taken into consideration.
Clinical signs will help the practitioner to localize the lesion to

the peripheral or central nervous system.
In sheep, goats, and cervids, infectious peripheral nerve disorders are less common than traumatic events leading to peripheral
nerve damage. The peripheral nerves and their most likely clinical
presentation when traumatized are summarized in Table 1.4.
Often, one or more lesions is appreciated on clinical examination
and this is attributable to multiple nerve roots or pathways being
affected (e.g., complicated dystocia followed by traumatic obstetric maneuvers).
Sciatic and obturator nerve paresis and paralysis are the most
common peripheral pelvic limb disorders. Radial nerve paralysis
is the most common nerve palsy affecting the thoracic limb in
sheep, goats, and cervids.

7

TABLE Typical Clinical Signs Associated
1.4
With Peripheral Nerve Disease.

Peripheral Nerves

Clinical Signs

Femoral nerve

Inability to bear weight and advance the
limb, absent patellar reflex

Sciatic nerve

Knuckled fetlock with dropped hock and

intact patellar reflex

Peroneal nerve

Hyperflexed fetlock, overextending the hock,
and inability to extend digit

Obturator nerve

Inability to adduct limbs

Tibial nerve

Knuckling of fetlock but no dropped hock

Radial nerve

Inability to advance the limb

TABLE Typical Clinical Signs Associated With Central
1.5
Nerve Disease.

Area Affected

Clinical Signs

Cortical and cerebral

Changes in mentation with normal

gait, posture, and spinal reflexes

Cortical

Head pressing, propulsive walking,
convulsions, and blindness

Cerebellar and spinal cord

Altered gait and posture with normal
mentation

Cerebellar

Ataxia with normal strength and
proprioception, truncal sway,
hypermetria and head tremor

Spinal cord

Increased extensor tone and exaggerated spinal reflexes or paresis
to paralysis with decreased spinal reflexes

Brain stem

Change in mentation, gait, posture,
and spinal reflexes may or may
not be present. Cranial nerve
deficits which may manifest as
head tilt, flaccid tongue, facial

paralysis, circling, or ptosis

The central nervous system is divided into four major anatomic sites to which clinical signs may be localized: cortical,
cerebral, cerebellar, and spinal cord. Diseases at any of these
locations may be characterized by alterations in mentation, gait,
posture, and spinal reflexes. The common clinical signs associated with the location in the nervous system are summarized in
Table 1.5.
Chapter 13 discusses in detail differential diagnoses for each
location, treatment, and prognosis associated with nervous system
diseases.

Mammary Gland Examination
Objectives:
1. Production history
2. Reproduction history
3. Examination

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C H A P T E R 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

If in lactation, both halves of the mammary gland, teats, and
teat sphincter are observed and palpated for symmetry, size,
conformation, temperature, and consistency. Infectious and noninfectious mastitis is detrimental to the production life of the
female, and can be a life-threatening disease if not treated
promptly and correctly.
It is recommended to first and foremost gather a complete history and observe the young stock. Problems associated with the

udder can be appreciated first in the lambs or kids that are weak,
show poor body condition, or are failing to gain weight. Malnourished neonates can be an indication of poor milk production or a
painful udder in the dam that has resulted in the dam not allowing the neonate to nurse.
The presence of edema that extends symmetrically and cranial
ventral to the udder is a common finding shortly after parturition,
especially in first-time ewes or does. A diffusely hard or firm udder
noted in the first few days after lambing may indicate ovine progressive pneumonia (OPP) infection in sheep or caprine arthritis
encephalitis (CAE) in goats. Low milk production and no signs of
clinical mastitis are a common occurrence in most cases of OPP
and CAE (see Chapter 16).
Aside from palpation of the mammary gland, if the doe is in
lactation, the practitioner must remove a few streams of milk from
both sides to assess patency of the sphincter. Color, consistency,
and presence of abnormal clots or flakes in the secretion should
prompt the practitioner to investigate further. The California
Mastitis Test (CMT) can be used to determine if a subclinical mastitis is present and if further culture of the secretion is necessary.
Prepartum mastitis, although uncommon in small ruminants,
can be caused by a herd/flock mate suckling or by a pathogen.
This condition must be evaluated and treated promptly as it can
severely affect colostrogenesis and ability to lactate after the birth
of the offspring (see Chapters 15 and 19).

Lymphatic Examination
Objectives:
1. History of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (CL) in the herd
2. Examination
It is part of the physical examination to palpate all the peripheral lymph nodes. Submandibular, retropharyngeal, parotid, prescapular, prefemoral, and supramammary (in females) are the
most common palpable lymph nodes. It is important to note that
often the practitioner will be unable to physically feel them, either
because they are too small, or in wool breeds of sheep, the thick

wool will impair access to them.
The authors recommend that attention be paid to lymph
nodes that are enlarged and draining purulent exudate. CL infection is known to be the most common disease associated with
draining lymph nodes in small ruminants and is extremely contagious in nature and is considered a zoonotic pathogen. Cervids
commonly have lymph node involvement with Fusobacterium
infections (see Chapter 16).

Integumentary Examination
Objectives:
1. Examination
2. Environment
Lesions like abrasions, lacerations, papules, pustules, scabs, and
hair or wool loss are clinical signs associated with and indicative

TABLE Typical Clinical Signs and Their Associated
1.6
Differential Diagnosis.

Clinical Signs

Potential Common Etiologies

Pruritus

Mange, allergy, and scrapie

Hair loss

Ringworm, mange, and nutrition


Skin nodules

Abscesses, pustules, and demodectic mange

Dandruff

Dry environment and often poor or improper nutrition

Crustiness

Chorioptic mange (under the dew claws), fungal or
bacterial dermatitis

Sunburn

Hairless parts of the body in white animals (often
seen on the top line, tip of nose, ears). Must
differentiate from photosensitization

Barbering

Chewing, biting, pulling of hair or wool by self or others

of dermatological issues. Always take into consideration the season
and type of environment where the animals are being housed.
Haired breeds of sheep e.g., Barbados, Katahdin, St. Croix, etc.)
and goats will shed winter coats in the spring. Wooly sheep
(e.g., Dorset, Suffolk, Merino, Corriedale, etc.) need to be sheared
at least once a year, during the summer months. Wool blindness
is a term often used by producers in reference to sheep with excessive wool above their eyes leading to their sight being physically

impaired. In these cases, shearing of the periorbital area must
be performed to avoid further damage, such as severe dermatitis
and eye damage.
In cases where the practitioner encounters a flock with more
than one case of poor wool quality, nutrition issues should always
to be discussed. Hairiness or abnormal wool pigmentation, such
as presence of brown fibers over the nape of the neck in wool
sheep, may indicate border disease infection. Table 1.6 summarizes the most common clinical signs associated with skin or coat
diseases in sheep and goats (see Chapter 10).

Restraining and Handling
Handling Sheep, Goats, and Cervids
Biosecurity.  The practitioner should always be aware of
potential zoonotic diseases during routine handling of small
ruminants. Protective clothing and gloves should be worn at
all times when visiting a herd or flock, and while interacting
with animals. Clothes must be changed and footwear thoroughly washed between farms as it can easily serve as a fomite
for infectious and contagious pathogens. As mentioned earlier,
part of the physical examination is to learn about the herd
health status through the use of historical information. This
information will help the practitioner to identify the potential
risk for the presence of zoonotic disease within a flock or herd.
Segregation of sick animals and dedicated areas for lambing or
kidding are strongly recommended to avoid and prevent
pathogen transmission.
To prevent the introduction of new diseases to an established
herd or flock, a prepurchase examination performed by a veterinarian is strongly recommended. Although prepurchase examinations do not guarantee the future health of that individual at the

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CHAPTER 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

future farm, it serves as an assurance that at that point in time
there is a healthy female or breeding male. Aside from obtaining
historical data from the herd/flock as a whole, the veterinarian
must also ask directed questions concerning vaccination history,
dietary protocols, and if any previous health events have occurred.
It is also imperative that the practitioner question whether any
treatments have been performed and by whom. Also, the veterinarian may decide to perform diagnostic tests including serology
(for caprine arthritis encephalitis, caseous lymphadenitis, paratuberculosis, etc.), serum biochemistry, complete blood count, and
a fecal examination. A reproductive or breeding soundness examination in both males and females may be indicated. It is
strongly recommended that the new owner quarantine new animal additions a minimum of 4 weeks with no physical or visual
contact with existing animals. Thirty days is known to be sufficient for most of the diseases that are worrisome and for those
animals to show clinical signs. The authors understand that quarantine may be logistically difficult for some herds/flocks. Quarantine allows new animals the chance to acclimate to the environment, diet, and behavior patterns, allowing a stress free and
productive atmosphere (see Chapter 19).
Behavior and Facilities.  The use of behavior patterns and
handling principles like “flight zone” and “point of balance”, as
well as providing appropriate facilities are the hallmark to successfully and safely working with sheep, goats, and cervids.

9

Once one enters the animal’s flight zone, to the point where they
feel threatened, the animal will walk/run away and face the person
to assess the situation. The way the farmer or the veterinarian handles this situation is exactly the way the animal will handle it. That
is, if the practitioner enters the flight zone calmly, the animal will
behave calmly; if the person aggressively and loudly runs or walks
towards the animal, the normal behavior is to also run. It is imperative to remember sheep, goats, and cervids are typically small
and fast, yet extremely strong. They can injure themselves and/or
injure the people that are attempting to work with them. In tightly

enclosed spaces, some cervids will choose to fight and have been
known to cause injury or death, especially males with antlers.
The level of the shoulder is known to be the point of balance.
When working a herd or flock, the location where the people
managing the animals are standing or moving about makes a
significant difference in how effectively and timely the job can be
executed. Standing in front of the chute or alleyway intended for
the animals to walk through is counterproductive. If the desire is
to encourage the animals to walk forward, the practitioner must
stay behind the point of balance (behind the level of the shoulder). If the goal is to encourage the animal to back up, then the
individual may walk past the level of the shoulder; this will invariably make the animals walk backwards. Having knowledge of
behavior patterns in sheep and goats is a fundamental part of
successful handling (Table 1.7).

TABLE
Typical Behavior Characteristics of Sheep and Goats.
1.7
TYPICAL BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTICS

Activity

Sheep

Goats

Cervids

Food preference

Grass and succulent herbage


Browse (weeds, leaves, twigs)

Browse broadleaf herbaceous weeds, leaves
and tender twigs, and grass

Food variety

Accept monotonous diet

Require variety

Require variety

Habitat selection

Lowlands or hilly grasslands

Climb rocks and elevations

Hardwoods, croplands, brush lands, and
pastures

Antagonistic behavior

Butt head on

Sideways hooking motion

Fighting


Butt

Rear on hind legs

Bite and push

Sexual behavior

Less herding

Herding of females

Fallow deer tend to maintain sexual segregation and make lion-like vocalizations

Newborn young
behavior

Remain by dam
(“lying in”)

Freezing some distance from the
dams (“lying out”)

First days, they hide in tall grass becoming
more active the second week of life

Alarm signal

Snort and stamp forefoot


Frequent high pitched “sneeze”

Snort or whistle, groan, or bleat when
predators are around

Alarm

Form compact bunch

Form thin line

Run

Hornless condition

Fertile

Sterile (usually) in males

N/A

Tail

Hangs down

Stands up

Down when calm/up with alarm


Beard

Absent

Present in buck and some females

Absent

Wattles

Absent

May be present

Absent

Hear a low flying plane

Frightened and likely to run

Often stand and watch

Alarm/run

Stress

Results from isolation or subjugation to unfamiliar environment

More of a problem in young kids
and doelings


Segregation or confinement

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10

C H A P T E R 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

Another crucial aspect of managing small ruminants is that the
farmer must be able to gather, restrain, and handle animals with
minimal stress. Injury prevention for both animals and personnel is
crucial. Small ruminants will readily follow one another and will
move away from things that frighten them. They move better
around slight corners or curves and will not move toward an area
that appears to be a dead end. Sheep and goats will move away from
buildings and prefer to move uphill. Lit areas are preferred as the
animals will resist movement into dark barns, alleys, and chutes.
Handling areas should be well lit and free of objects that may project shadows into the visual path. Solid sides in alleyways will help
maintain forward momentum and minimize attempts at escape.
Well-planned working facilities to deal with a flock of sheep
for example, are known to provide the desirable details mentioned
above. Commercially available chute systems (Figure 1.4A) placed
in an appropriate, well-lit location that is free of random loose

objects, allows the flock to ease their way into the holding area.
This is considered one of the best-known ways to work a flock
(Figure 1.4B).
If a chute system is not available, the farmer should consider

moving the flock into a small paddock or stall as a group
(Figure 1.5). It is wise to always try to work the flock together,
even though you may not need all animals present in that group.
Sheep have an extremely strong flocking instinct, therefore, if one
animals is seen segregated and away from the flock, the practitioner and famer must investigate further. Once the group is in a
small area, the practitioner carefully and calmly enters the area to
attempt to catch an individual animal. Always remember they can
be flighty animals and if necessary, they will give their full potential to escape by head butting or jumping.
To catch a sheep, the handler can cup a hand under the animal’s jaw, grasping the bony part of the jaw—not the throat.

A

B
•  Fig. 1.4  A. Commercially available chute restraint system to facilitate herd work. (Photo courtesy Sims
Pond Farm.) B. Operating the chute system to safely restrain the animals allowing routine livestock
procedures to be performed. (Photo courtesy Hunt Road Katahdin Sheep Farm.)

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CHAPTER 1  Physical Examination, Handling, and Restraint of Sheep, Goats, and Cervids

11

•  Fig. 1.5  Depicted in this image is an example of a corral area. If a chute system is not available, small
groups are moved into these smaller areas allowing herd work to be performed.

Once it has been caught, a second hand should be placed behind
the head below the animal’s ears. It is important to note that for
better control, the animal’s nose should be pointed upward to

stop its forward motion, as sheep have a lot more power when
the head is down. The handler should never grab the sheep by
the wool or hair. A crook or lariat also is an acceptable catching
device. A sheep can be handled using various handling points—
for example, under the mandible, tail, and flank (Figure 1.6).
After it has been caught, a sheep can be “tipped” on its rump for
examination, shearing, foot trimming, and other routine procedures (Figure 1.7).

Goats are different in many respects when it comes to handling
and to the facilities needed to work them. Goats are not as concerned
about herding, but rather they develop close relationships with certain herd mates and can be seen playing and socializing. Goats typically spread out while browsing and ruminating. To catch a goat, the
use of the horns as “handles” is an acceptable way to get a hold on
them (Figure 1.8A, B); restraint by their ears is painful and considered abusive. Goats housed with a collar or halter can be caught using
this, with the handler looping an arm around the animal’s neck. It is
strongly recommended not to hold a goat by its hindlimbs as it
may possibly dislocate a hip joint in an attempt to escape.

• Fig. 1.6  Proper method of individual animal restraint.

•  Fig. 1.7  Series of images on how to tip a sheep and place it on its rump. This is a common method
used to restrain adult sheep, allowing a multitude of livestock procedures to be performed (e.g., foot
trimming, shearing).

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