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Janice Gorzynski Smith
University of Hawai’i at Ma- noa

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GENERAL, ORGANIC, AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
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The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Smith, Janice G.
General, organic, and biological chemistry / Janice Gorzynski Smith. — 1st ed.
p. m.
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Includes index.
ISBN 978–0–07–302657–2 — ISBN 0–07–302657–3 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Chemistry—Textbooks.
I. Title.
QD31.3.S63 2010
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2008044484

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Dedication
To my husband Dan, children Erin, Jenna, Matthew, and Zachary,
and father Stanley, and in memory of my mother Dorothea and
daughter Megan.


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About the Author

Janice Gorzynski Smith was born in Schenectady, New York, and grew up following the Yankees, listening to the Beatles, and water skiing on Sacandaga Reservoir. She became
interested in chemistry in high school, and went on to major in chemistry at Cornell University
where she received an A.B. degree summa cum laude. Jan earned a Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry
from Harvard University under the direction of Nobel Laureate E.J. Corey, and she also spent a
year as a National Science Foundation National Needs Postdoctoral Fellow at Harvard. During
her tenure with the Corey group, she completed the total synthesis of the plant growth hormone
gibberellic acid.
Following her postdoctoral work, Jan joined the faculty of Mount Holyoke College where
she was employed for 21 years. During this time she was active in teaching chemistry lecture
and lab courses, conducting a research program in organic synthesis, and serving as department
chair. Her organic chemistry class was named one of Mount Holyoke’s “Don’t-miss courses”
in a survey by Boston magazine. After spending two sabbaticals amidst the natural beauty
and diversity in Hawai‘i in the 1990s, Jan and her family moved there permanently in 2000.
She is currently a faculty member at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, where she teaches
a one-semester organic and biological chemistry course for nursing students, as well as the
two-semester organic chemistry lecture and lab courses. She also serves as the faculty advisor
to the student affiliate chapter of the American Chemical Society. In 2003, she received the
Chancellor’s Citation for Meritorious Teaching.
Jan resides in Hawai‘i with her husband Dan, an emergency medicine physician. She has
four children: Matthew and Zachary (scuba photo on page 190); Jenna, a fi rst-year law student
at Temple University in Philadelphia; and Erin, a 2006 graduate of Brown University School of
Medicine and co-author of the Student Study Guide/Solutions Manual for this text. When not
teaching, writing, or enjoying her family, Jan bikes, hikes, snorkels, and scuba dives in sunny
Hawai‘i, and time permitting, enjoys travel and Hawai‘ian quilting.


vi

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Brief Contents

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Matter and Measurement 1
Atoms and the Periodic Table 32
Ionic Compounds 66
Covalent Compounds 93
Chemical Reactions 121
Energy Changes, Reaction Rates, and Equilibrium 159
Gases, Liquids, and Solids 190
Solutions 228
Acids and Bases 258
Nuclear Chemistry 298

11 Introduction to Organic Molecules and Functional


12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Groups 322
Alkanes 355
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 379
Organic Compounds That Contain Oxygen, Halogen, or Sulfur 418
The Three-Dimensional Shape of Molecules 449
Aldehydes and Ketones 473
Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides 503
Amines and Neurotransmitters 540

19
20
21
22
23
24

Lipids 569
Carbohydrates 608
Amino Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes 644
Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis 682
Digestion and the Conversion of Food into Energy 718

Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism 744

vii

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Contents

Preface xxii
P.A.V.E. the Way to Student Learning
Acknowledgments xxvii
List of How To’s xxix
List of Applications xxx

1

Matter and Measurement
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

2

The Metric System 8
Measuring Length 10

Measuring Mass 10
Measuring Volume 10

Significant Figures
1.5A
1.5B
1.5C

1.6
1.7

1

Chemistry—The Science of Everyday Experience
States of Matter 3
Classification of Matter 5
Measurement 8
1.4A
1.4B
1.4C
1.4D

1.5

xxiv

11

Determining the Number of Significant Figures 12
Using Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division 13

Using Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction 15

Scientific Notation 16
Problem Solving Using the Factor–Label Method
1.7A
1.7B
1.7C

18

Conversion Factors 18
Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor 19
Solving a Problem Using Two or More Conversion Factors

21

1.8

Focus on Health & Medicine: Problem Solving Using Clinical
Conversion Factors 22
1.9 Temperature 24
1.10 Density and Specific Gravity 25
1.10A
1.10B

Density 25
Specific Gravity

Chapter Highlights


27

27

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CONTENTS

x

2

Atoms and the Periodic Table
2.1

Elements
2.1A
2.1B
2.1C

2.2
2.3

2.4

2.7


2.8

Basic Features of the Periodic Table 44
Characteristics of Groups 1A, 2A, 7A, and 8A
The Unusual Nature of Carbon 48

59

Ionic Compounds
3.1
3.2

3.3

67

75

79

Naming Cations 79
Naming Anions 80
Naming Ionic Compounds with Cations from Main Group Metals 80
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Metals with Variable Charge 81
Writing a Formula from the Name of an Ionic Compound 82

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds 83
Polyatomic Ions 83
3.6A
3.6B

3.6C
3.6D

71

Formulas for Ionic Compounds 76
Focus on Health & Medicine: Ionic Compounds in Consumer Products 78

Naming Ionic Compounds
3.4A
3.4B
3.4C
3.4D
3.4E

3.5
3.6

66

Cations and Anions 68
Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Main Group Elements
Metals with Variable Charge 73
Focus on the Human Body: Important Ions in the Body 74

Ionic Compounds
3.3A
3.3B

3.4


61

Introduction to Bonding
Ions 68
3.2A
3.2B
3.2C
3.2D

55

Atomic Size 59
Ionization Energy 60

Chapter Highlights

3

51

Valence Electrons 56
Electron-Dot Symbols 58

Periodic Trends
2.8A
2.8B

46


First-Row Elements (Period 1) 52
Second-Row Elements (Period 2) 53
Other Elements 54

Electronic Configurations and the Periodic Table
2.7A
2.7B

43

44

Electronic Structure 48
Electronic Configurations
2.6A
2.6B
2.6C

34

37

Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number 41
Atomic Weight 42
Focus on Health & Medicine: Isotopes in Medicine

The Periodic Table
2.4A
2.4B
2.4C


2.5
2.6

33

Elements and the Periodic Table 34
Focus on the Human Body: The Elements of Life
Compounds 36

Structure of the Atom
Isotopes 40
2.3A
2.3B
2.3C

32

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions 86
Focus on Health & Medicine: Useful Ionic Compounds 87
Focus on Health & Medicine: Treating Osteoporosis 87

Chapter Highlights 88

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CONTENTS

xi

4

Covalent Compounds 93
4.1

Introduction to Covalent Bonding
4.1A
4.1B

4.2

Lewis Structures 97
4.2A
4.2B

4.3

103

Drawing Resonance Structures 103
Focus on the Environment: Ozone 104

Naming Covalent Compounds
Molecular Shape 106
4.6A
4.6B

4.6C

4.7
4.8
4.9

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 110
Polarity of Molecules 112
Focus on Health & Medicine: Covalent Drugs and Medical Products
115

Chemical Reactions
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

143

Calculating Percent Yield 144
Calculating Percent Yield from Grams of Reactant 145
Focus on Health & Medicine: The Importance of Percent Yield in the
Pharmaceutical Industry 147

Oxidation and Reduction
5.8A
5.8B

5.9


135

Converting Moles of Reactant to Grams of Product 138
Converting Grams of Reactant to Grams of Product 140

Percent Yield
5.7A
5.7B
5.7C

5.8

Molar Mass 133
Relating Grams to Moles 134
Relating Grams to Number of Atoms or Molecules

Mole Calculations in Chemical Equations 136
Mass Calculations in Chemical Equations 138
5.6A
5.6B

5.7

121

Introduction to Chemical Reactions 122
Balancing Chemical Equations 125
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 130
Mass to Mole Conversions 132
5.4A

5.4B
5.4C

5.5
5.6

105

Two Groups Around an Atom 107
Three Groups Around an Atom 108
Four Groups Around an Atom 108

Chapter Highlights

5

98

Elements in Group 3A 102
Elements in the Third Row 102

Resonance
4.4A
4.4B

4.5
4.6

Drawing Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds 100


Exceptions to the Octet Rule 102
4.3A
4.3B

4.4

94

Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table 95
Focus on the Human Body: Covalent Molecules and the Cardiovascular
System 96

148

General Features of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Examples of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 150

Focus on Health & Medicine: Pacemakers
Chapter Highlights 153

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148

114



CONTENTS

xii

6

Energy Changes, Reaction Rates, and Equilibrium
6.1

Energy
6.1A
6.1B

6.2

173

The Equilibrium Constant 174
The Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 175
Calculating the Equilibrium Constant 178

179

Concentration Changes 179
Temperature Changes 180
Pressure Changes 181

Focus on the Human Body: Body Temperature
Chapter Highlights


7

Introduction 191
Gases and Pressure
7.2A
7.2B
7.2C

7.3

7.3D

192

Properties of Gases 192
Gas Pressure 193
Focus on Health & Medicine: Blood Pressure

194

195

Boyle’s Law—How the Pressure and Volume of a Gas Are Related 195
Charles’s Law—How the Volume and Temperature of a Gas Are Related 197
Gay–Lussac’s Law—How the Pressure and Temperature of a Gas
Are Related 200
The Combined Gas Law 201

Avogadro’s Law—How Volume and Moles Are Related 202
The Ideal Gas Law 206

Dalton’s Law and Partial Pressures 208
Intermolecular Forces, Boiling Point, and Melting Point 210
7.7A
7.7B
7.7C
7.7D

7.8

190

Gas Laws That Relate Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
7.3A
7.3B
7.3C

7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

182

184

Gases, Liquids, and Solids
7.1
7.2

165


How Concentration and Temperature Affect Reaction Rate 170
Catalysts 171
Focus on the Human Body: Lactase, a Biological Catalyst 171
Focus on the Environment: Catalytic Converters 172

Le Châtelier’s Principle
6.6A
6.6B
6.6C

6.7

Bond Dissociation Energy 163
Calculations involving ∆H values

Equilibrium
6.5A
6.5B
6.5C

6.6

161

Energy Diagrams 167
Reaction Rates 170
6.4A
6.4B
6.4C

6.4D

6.5

160
The Units of Energy 160
Focus on the Human Body: Energy and Nutrition

Energy Changes in Reactions 162
6.2A
6.2B

6.3
6.4

159

London Dispersion Forces 210
Dipole–Dipole Interactions 211
Hydrogen Bonding 211
Boiling Point and Melting Point 213

The Liquid State
7.8A
7.8B

215

Vapor Pressure 215
Viscosity and Surface Tension


7.9 The Solid State 218
7.10 Energy and Phase Changes
7.10A
7.10B
7.10C

217

219

Converting a Solid to a Liquid 219
Converting a Liquid to a Gas 220
Converting a Solid to a Gas 221

Chapter Highlights

222

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CONTENTS

xiii

8

Solutions
8.1

8.2

Introduction 229
Solubility—General Features
8.2A
8.2B

8.3

Solubility—Effects of Temperature and Pressure

Concentration Units—Percent Concentration

Concentration Units—Molarity
Dilution 244
Colligative Properties 246

Osmosis and Dialysis

Acids and Bases

9.3

258
259

260
261

Proton Transfer—The Reaction of a Brønsted–Lowry Acid

with a Brønsted–Lowry Base 263
Acid and Base Strength 266
Relating Acid and Base Strength 266
Using Acid Strength to Predict the Direction of Equilibrium 270

Equilibrium and Acid Dissociation Constants
Dissociation of Water 274
The pH Scale 276
9.6A
9.6B
9.6C

9.7

250

253

Brønsted–Lowry Acids
Brønsted–Lowry Bases

9.3A
9.3B

9.4
9.5
9.6

248


Introduction to Acids and Bases
9.1A
9.1B

9.2

241

Osmotic Pressure 249
Focus on the Human Body: Osmosis and Biological Membranes
Focus on Health & Medicine: Dialysis 251

Chapter Highlights

9.1

238

Boiling Point Elevation 246
Freezing Point Depression 247

8.8A
8.8B
8.8C

9

236

Weight/Volume Percent 236

Volume/Volume Percent 237
Using a Percent Concentration as a Conversion Factor
Parts Per Million 239

8.7A
8.7B

8.8

235

Temperature Effects 235
Pressure Effects 235

8.4A
8.4B
8.4C
8.4D

8.5
8.6
8.7

231

Basic Principles 231
Ionic Compounds—Additional Principles 234

8.3A
8.3B


8.4

228

272

Calculating pH 276
Calculating pH Using a Calculator 279
Focus on the Human Body: The pH of Body Fluids

Common Acid–Base Reactions
9.7A
9.7B

280

280

Reaction of Acids with Hydroxide Bases 281
Reaction of Acids with Bicarbonate and Carbonate

282

9.8 The Acidity and Basicity of Salt Solutions 283
9.9 Titration 285
9.10 Buffers 287
9.10A
9.10B
9.10C


General Characteristics of a Buffer 287
Calculating the pH of a Buffer 290
Focus on the Environment: Acid Rain and a Naturally Buffered Lake

9.11 Focus on the Human Body: Buffers in the Blood
Chapter Highlights

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292

291


CONTENTS

xiv

10

Nuclear Chemistry
10.1

Introduction
10.1A
10.1B
10.1C


10.2

10.3

Radioisotopes Used in Diagnosis 311
Radioisotopes Used in Treatment 312
Positron Emission Tomography—PET Scans

311

313

314

Nuclear Fission 315
Nuclear Fusion 316

Focus on Health & Medicine: Medical Imaging Without Radioactivity 317
Chapter Highlights

11

310

Measuring the Radioactivity in a Sample 310
Measuring Human Exposure to Radioactivity 311

Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
10.6A

10.6B

10.7

General Features 307
Archaeological Dating 309

Focus on Health & Medicine: Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
10.5A
10.5B
10.5C

10.6

302

Alpha Emission 302
Beta Emission 303
Positron Emission 305
Gamma Emission 306

Detecting and Measuring Radioactivity
10.4A
10.4B

10.5

301

Half-Life 307

10.3A
10.3B

10.4

299

Isotopes 299
Types of Radiation 300
Focus on Health & Medicine: The Effects of Radioactivity

Nuclear Reactions
10.2A
10.2B
10.2C
10.2D

298

318

Introduction to Organic Molecules
and Functional Groups 322
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4

Introduction to Organic Chemistry 323
Characteristic Features of Organic Compounds

Shapes of Organic Molecules 327
Drawing Organic Molecules 331
11.4A
11.4B

11.5

11.6

334

Hydrocarbons 335
Compounds Containing a Single Bond to a Heteroatom 336
Compounds Containing a C=O Group 337

Properties of Organic Compounds
11.6A
11.6B
11.6C

11.7

Condensed Structures 331
Skeletal Structures 333

Functional Groups
11.5A
11.5B
11.5C


340

Polarity 340
Solubility 343
Focus on the Environment: Environmental Pollutants

Focus on Health & Medicine: Vitamins
11.7A
11.7B

323

Vitamin A 345
Vitamin C 346

Chapter Highlights 348

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345

344


CONTENTS

xv

12


Alkanes
12.1
12.2

355

Introduction 356
Simple Alkanes 356
12.2A
12.2B
12.2C
12.2D

12.3

Acyclic Alkanes Having Fewer Than Five Carbons 356
Acyclic Alkanes Having Five or More Carbons 359
Classifying Carbon Atoms 360
Bond Rotation and Skeletal Structures for Acyclic Alkanes 361

An Introduction to Nomenclature
12.3A
12.3B

12.4

Naming Substituents 363
Naming an Acyclic Alkane 364

Cycloalkanes 367

12.5A
12.5B

12.6
12.7
12.8

362

Alkane Nomenclature 363
12.4A
12.4B

12.5

362

The IUPAC System of Nomenclature 362
Focus on Health & Medicine: Naming New Drugs

Simple Cycloalkanes 367
Naming Cycloalkanes 368

Focus on the Environment: Fossil Fuels 370
Physical Properties 371
Focus on the Environment: Combustion 372
Chapter Highlights 374

13


Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
13.1
13.2
13.3

Alkenes and Alkynes 380
Nomenclature of Alkenes and Alkynes
Cis–Trans Isomers 385
13.3A
13.3B

13.4
13.5
13.6

382

Stereoisomers—A New Class of Isomer 385
Focus on Health & Medicine: Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Interesting Alkenes in Food and Medicine 389
Focus on Health & Medicine: Oral Contraceptives
Reactions of Alkenes 392
13.6A
13.6B
13.6C
13.6D

13.7
13.8


379

390

Addition of Hydrogen—Hydrogenation 392
Addition of Halogen—Halogenation 393
Addition of Hydrogen Halides—Hydrohalogenation
Addition of Water—Hydration 395

Focus on Health & Medicine: Margarine or Butter?
Polymers—The Fabric of Modern Society 398
13.8A
13.8B

Synthetic Polymers 398
Focus on the Environment: Polymer Recycling

13.9 Aromatic Compounds 402
13.10 Nomenclature of Benzene Derivatives
13.10A
13.10B
13.10C
13.10D

394

396

401


403

Monosubstituted Benzenes 403
Disubstituted Benzenes 403
Polysubstituted Benzenes 404
Aromatic Compounds with More Than One Ring

404

13.11 Focus on Health & Medicine: Aromatic Drugs, Sunscreens,
and Carcinogens 405
13.12 Focus on Health & Medicine: Phenols as Antioxidants 407
13.13 Reactions of Aromatic Compounds 408
13.13A
13.13B
13.13C

Chlorination and the Synthesis of the Pesticide DDT 409
Focus on Health & Medicine: Nitration and Sulfa Drugs 409
Sulfonation and Detergent Synthesis 410

Chapter Highlights

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CONTENTS

xvi

14

Organic Compounds That Contain Oxygen, Halogen,
or Sulfur 418
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5

Introduction 419
Structure and Properties of Alcohols
Nomenclature of Alcohols 422
Interesting Alcohols 424
Reactions of Alcohols 426
14.5A
14.5B
14.5C

14.6

The Metabolism of Ethanol 431
Health Effects of Alcohol Consumption

Structure and Properties of Ethers

14.7A
14.7B

14.8
14.9

Dehydration 426
Oxidation 428
Focus on the Human Body: Oxidation and Blood Alcohol Screening 430

Focus on Health & Medicine: Ethanol, the Most Widely Abused Drug 431
14.6A
14.6B

14.7

420

432

432

Physical Properties 433
Naming Ethers 435

Focus on Health & Medicine: Ethers as Anesthetics
Alkyl Halides 436
14.9A
14.9B
14.9C

14.9D

436

Physical Properties 437
Nomenclature 437
Interesting Alkyl Halides 438
Focus on the Environment: Alkyl Halides and the Ozone Layer

14.10 Organic Compounds That Contain Sulfur

439

440

Chapter Highlights 442

15

The Three-Dimensional Shape of Molecules
15.1
15.2

Isomers—A Review 450
Looking Glass Chemistry—Molecules and Their Mirror Images
15.2A
15.2B
15.2C

15.3


457

Locating Chirality Centers on Ring Carbons 457
Focus on Health & Medicine: The Unforgettable Legacy of Thalidomide

Focus on Health & Medicine: Chiral Drugs 459
15.5A
15.5B

15.6
15.7
15.8

451

451

Locating Chirality Centers 453
Drawing a Pair of Enantiomers 456

Chirality Centers in Cyclic Compounds
15.4A
15.4B

15.5

What It Means to Be Chiral or Achiral
The Chirality of Molecules 452
Chirality in Nature 453


Chirality Centers 453
15.3A
15.3B

15.4

449

Chiral Pain Relievers 460
Parkinson’s Disease and L-Dopa 461

Fischer Projections 462
Compounds With Two or More Chirality Centers 463
Focus on the Human Body: The Sense of Smell 465
Chapter Highlights 467

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CONTENTS

xvii

16

Aldehydes and Ketones
16.1

16.2

Structure and Bonding
Nomenclature 476
16.2A
16.2B

16.3
16.4
16.5

Physical Properties 478
Focus on Health & Medicine: Interesting Aldehydes and Ketones
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones 481

Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones 484
Specific Features of Carbonyl Reductions 484
Examples of Carbonyl Reduction in Organic Synthesis 486
Focus on the Human Body: Biological Reductions 486

Focus on the Human Body: The Chemistry of Vision 487
Acetal Formation 489
16.8A
16.8B
16.8C

Acetals and Hemiacetals 489
Cyclic Hemiacetals 492
Acetal Hydrolysis 494


Chapter Highlights

17

495

Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides
17.1
17.2

Structure and Bonding
Nomenclature 506
17.2A
17.2B
17.2C

17.3
17.4

512

Focus on Health & Medicine: Skin Care Products 512
Focus on Health & Medicine: Aspirin and Anti-Inflammatory Agents

513

Interesting Esters and Amides 514
The Acidity of Carboxylic Acids 515
Reaction with Bases 515
Carboxylate Anions—Salts of Carboxylic Acids 516

How Does Soap Clean Away Dirt? 517

Focus on Health & Medicine: Aspirin 519
The Conversion of Carboxylic Acids to Esters and Amides 521
17.8A
17.8B

17.9

506

Physical Properties 510
Interesting Carboxylic Acids in Consumer Products and Medicines

17.6A
17.6B
17.6C

17.7
17.8

503

504

Naming a Carboxylic Acid—RCOOH
Naming an Ester—RCOOR' 507
Naming an Amide 508

17.4A

17.4B

17.5
17.6

480

General Considerations 481
Oxidation of Aldehydes 482

16.6A
16.6B
16.6C

16.7
16.8

474

Naming Aldehydes 476
Naming Ketones 477

16.5A
16.5B

16.6

473

Ester Formation 521

Amide Formation 523

Hydrolysis of Esters and Amides 524
17.9A
17.9B
17.9C

Ester Hydrolysis 524
Amide Hydrolysis 526
Focus on Health & Medicine: Olestra, a Synthetic Fat

527

17.10 Synthetic Polymers in Modern Society—Polyamides and Polyesters
17.10A
17.10B
17.10C
17.10D

Nylon—A Polyamide 528
Polyesters 529
Focus on Health & Medicine: Dissolving Sutures 530
Focus on the Environment: Polymer Recycling 531

17.11 Focus on Health & Medicine: Penicillin
Chapter Highlights

532

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532

528


CONTENTS

xviii

18

Amines and Neurotransmitters
18.1
18.2

Structure and Bonding
Nomenclature 543
18.2A
18.2B
18.2C
18.2D

18.3
18.4

Morphine and Related Alkaloids
Quinine 551
Atropine 551


550
550

Reaction of Amines with Acids 552
Ammonium Salts 553

Focus on Health & Medicine: Ammonium Salts as Useful Drugs
Neurotransmitters 556
18.8A
18.8B
18.8C

18.9

547

Caffeine 547
Nicotine 549

Amines as Bases 552
18.6A
18.6B

18.7
18.8

Primary Amines 543
Secondary and Tertiary Amines 543
Aromatic Amines 545
Miscellaneous Nomenclature Facts 545


Alkaloids—Amines from Plant Sources
18.5A
18.5B
18.5C

18.6

541

Physical Properties 545
Focus on Health & Medicine: Caffeine and Nicotine
18.4A
18.4B

18.5

540

Norepinephrine and Dopamine 557
Serotonin 558
Acetylcholine and Nicotine Addiction

560

Focus on the Human Body: Epinephrine and Related Compounds
18.9A
18.9B

Derivatives of 2-Phenylethylamine

Drugs to Treat Asthma 562

Chapter Highlights

Lipids
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4

Introduction to Lipids 570
Fatty Acids 572
Waxes 575
Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils

Focus on the Human Body: Metabolism of Triacylglycerols
Soap Synthesis 583

582

Phosphoacylglycerols 585
Sphingomyelins 586

Cell Membranes
19.7A
19.7B

19.8
19.9
19.10

19.11

579

Phospholipids 584
19.6A
19.6B

19.7

576

General Features 577
Focus on Health & Medicine: Fats and Oils in the Diet

Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols 580
19.5A
19.5B

19.6

562

563

569

19.4A
19.4B


19.5

560

560

18.10 Focus on Health & Medicine: Histamine and Antihistamines

19

555

589

Structure of the Cell Membrane 589
Transport Across a Cell Membrane 590

Focus on Health & Medicine: Cholesterol, the Most Prominent Steroid 591
Steroid Hormones 595
Focus on Health & Medicine: Fat-Soluble Vitamins 597
Focus on Health & Medicine: Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes 599
19.11A
19.11B

Prostaglandins 599
Asthma and Leukotrienes 600

Chapter Highlights

601


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CONTENTS

xix

20

Carbohydrates 608
20.1
20.2

Introduction 609
Monosaccharides 610
20.2A
20.2B
20.2C

20.3

Fischer Projection Formulas 612
Monosaccharides with More Than One Chirality Center
Common Monosaccharides 615

The Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
20.3A
20.3B
20.3C


20.4

Reduction and Oxidation of Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

630

Cellulose 631
Starch 632
Glycogen 633

Focus on the Human Body: Useful Carbohydrate Derivatives
20.7A
20.7B

20.8

626

Focus on Health & Medicine: Lactose Intolerance 628
Focus on Health & Medicine: Sucrose and Artificial Sweeteners 629

20.6A
20.6B
20.6C


20.7

Glycosaminoglycans
Chitin 634

634

Focus on the Human Body: Blood Type
Chapter Highlights

21

636

638

Amino Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes
21.1
21.2

General Features of Amino Acids 646
Stereochemistry of Amino Acids 647

Acid–Base Behavior of Amino Acids 649
Peptides 651
Focus on the Human Body: Biologically Active Peptides
21.5A
21.5B

21.6


α-Keratins 664
Collagen 664
Hemoglobin and Myoglobin

661

665

Protein Hydrolysis and Denaturation
21.8A
21.8B

21.9

657
Primary Structure 657
Secondary Structure 658
Tertiary and Quaternary Structure

Focus on the Human Body: Common Proteins
21.7A
21.7B
21.7C

21.8

Neuropeptides—Enkephalins and Pain Relief 654
Peptide Hormones—Oxytocin and Vasopressin 655


Proteins
21.6A
21.6B
21.6C

21.7

644

Introduction 645
Amino Acids 646
21.2A
21.2B

21.3
21.4
21.5

621

Reduction of the Aldehyde Carbonyl Group 622
Oxidation of the Aldehyde Carbonyl Group 623
Focus on Health & Medicine: Monitoring Glucose Levels 625

20.5A
20.5B

20.6

616


The Cyclic Forms of D -Glucose 617
Haworth Projections 618
The Cyclic Forms of Fructose, a Ketohexose 621

20.4A
20.4B
20.4C

20.5

613

Protein Hydrolysis 667
Protein Denaturation 668

Enzymes
21.9A
21.9B
21.9C
21.9D

669

Characteristics of Enzymes 669
How Enzymes Work 670
Enzyme Inhibitors 671
Zymogens 673

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667

664

654

634


CONTENTS

xx

21.10 Focus on Health & Medicine: Using Enzymes to Diagnose
and Treat Diseases 674
21.10A
21.10B

Enzyme Levels as Diagnostic Tools 674
Treating Disease with Drugs That Interact with Enzymes 675

Chapter Highlights

22

676

Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
22.1


Nucleosides and Nucleotides 683
22.1A
22.1B

22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.8
22.9
22.10

Nucleosides—Joining a Monosaccharide and a Base 683
Nucleotides—Joining a Nucleoside with a Phosphate 686

Nucleic Acids 688
The DNA Double Helix 690
Replication 693
RNA 695
Transcription 697
The Genetic Code 698
Translation and Protein Synthesis 700
Mutations and Genetic Diseases 703
Recombinant DNA 705
22.10A
22.10B
22.10C


General Principles 705
Polymerase Chain Reaction 707
Focus on the Human Body: DNA Fingerprinting

22.11 Focus on Health & Medicine: Viruses
Chapter Highlights

23

682

708

710

712

Digestion and the Conversion of Food into Energy 718
23.1
23.2

Introduction 719
An Overview of Metabolism
23.2A
23.2B

23.3

ATP and Energy Production

23.3A
23.3B
23.3C

23.4

23.6

732

Overview of the Citric Acid Cycle 732
Specific Steps of the Citric Acid Cycle 733

The Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
23.6A
23.6B
23.6C

23.7

728

Coenzymes NAD+ and NADH 728
Coenzymes FAD and FADH2 730
Coenzyme A 731

The Citric Acid Cycle
23.5A
23.5B


723

General Features of ATP Hydrolysis and Formation 723
Coupled Reactions in Metabolic Pathways 725
Focus on the Human Body: Creatine and Athletic Performance 727

Coenzymes in Metabolism
23.4A
23.4B
23.4C

23.5

720

Stage [1]—Digestion 720
Stages [2]–[4] of Catabolism 720

The Electron Transport Chain 736
ATP Synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation 737
ATP Yield from Oxidative Phosphorylation 738

Focus on Health & Medicine: Hydrogen Cyanide
Chapter Highlights

740

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739


736


CONTENTS

xxi

24

Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism 744
24.1
24.2
24.3

Introduction 745
Understanding Biochemical Reactions
Glycolysis 748
24.3A
24.3B
24.3C
24.3D

24.4

The Steps in Glycolysis 749
The Net Result of Glycolysis 752
Glycolysis and Other Hexoses 753
Focus on Health & Medicine: Glycolysis and Cancer Cells


The Fate of Pyruvate
24.4A
24.4B
24.4C

24.5
24.6
24.7

754

754

Conversion to Acetyl CoA 754
Focus on Health & Medicine: Conversion to Lactate 755
Focus on Health & Medicine: Conversion to Ethanol 756

The ATP Yield from Glucose 757
Gluconeogenesis 759
The Catabolism of Triacylglycerols
24.7A
24.7B
24.7C

24.8
24.9

745

760


Glycerol Catabolism 761
Fatty Acid Catabolism by β-Oxidation 761
The Energy Yield from Fatty Acid Oxidation

764

Ketone Bodies 765
Amino Acid Metabolism 766
24.9A
24.9B

Degradation of Amino Acids—The Fate of the Amino Group 766
Degradation of Amino Acids—The Fate of the Carbon Skeleton 769

Chapter Highlights

770

Appendices
A Useful Mathematical Concepts A-1
B Selected Answers to In-Chapter and End-of-Chapter Problems B-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1

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Preface


M

y goal in writing this text was to relate the fundamental concepts of general, organic, and
biological chemistry to the world around us, and in this way illustrate how chemistry
explains many aspects of everyday life. I have followed two guiding principles: use relevant and
interesting applications for all basic chemical concepts, and present the material in a studentfriendly fashion using bulleted lists, extensive illustrations, and step-by-step problem solving.
This text is different—by design. Since today’s students rely more heavily on visual imagery
to learn than ever before, this text uses less prose and more diagrams and figures to reinforce
the major themes of chemistry. A key feature is the use of molecular art to illustrate and explain
common phenomena we encounter every day. Each topic is broken down into small chunks of
information that are more manageable and easily learned. Students are given enough detail to
understand basic concepts, such as how soap cleans away dirt and why trans fats are undesirable
in the diet, without being overwhelmed.
This textbook is written for students who have an interest in nursing, nutrition, environmental science, food science, and a wide variety of other health-related professions. The content of
this book is designed for an introductory chemistry course with no chemistry prerequisite, and is
suitable for either a two-semester sequence or a one-semester course. I have found that by introducing one new concept at a time, keeping the basic themes in focus, and breaking down complex
problems into small pieces, many students in these chemistry courses acquire a new appreciation
of both the human body and the larger world around them.

BUILDING THE TEXT
Writing a textbook is a multifaceted process. McGraw-Hill’s 360° Development Process is an
ongoing, never ending market-oriented approach to building accurate and innovative print and
digital products. It is dedicated to continual large scale and incremental improvement, driven by
multiple customer feedback loops and checkpoints. This is initiated during the early planning
stages of new products and intensifies during the development and production stages, and then
begins again upon publication, in anticipation of the next edition. This process is designed to
provide a broad, comprehensive spectrum of feedback for refinement and innovation of learning
tools, for both student and instructor. The 360° Development Process includes market research,
content reviews, faculty and student focus groups, course- and product-specific symposia, accuracy checks, and art reviews, all guided by a carefully selected Board of Advisors.


THE LEARNING SYSTEM USED IN GENERAL, ORGANIC,
AND BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
• Writing Style A concise writing style allows students to focus on learning major concepts
and themes of general, organic, and biological chemistry. Relevant materials from everyday
life are used to illustrate concepts, and topics are broken into small chunks of information
that are more easily learned.
• Chapter Outline The chapter outline lists the main headings of the chapter, to help students map out the organization of each chapter’s content.

xxii

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PREFACE

xxiii

• Chapter Goals, tied to end-of-chapter Key Concepts The Chapter Goals at the beginning of each chapter identify what students will learn, and are tied numerically to the
end-of-chapter Key Concepts, which serve as bulleted summaries of the most important
concepts for study.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
2.1

Elements

2.2

Structure of the Atom


2.3

Isotopes

2.4

The Periodic Table

2.5

Electronic Structure

2.6

Electronic Configurations

2.7

Electronic Configurations and the
Periodic Table

2.8

Periodic Trends

CHAPTER GOALS
In this chapter you will learn how to:
➊ Identify an element by its symbol
and classify it as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid

➋ Describe the basic parts of an atom
➌ Distinguish isotopes and calculate
atomic weight
➍ Describe the basic features of the
periodic table
➎ Understand the electronic structure
of an atom
➏ Write an electronic configuration for
an element
➐ Relate the location of an element in
the periodic table to its electronic
configuration
➑ Draw an electron-dot symbol for an
atom
➒ Use the periodic table to predict the
relative size and ionization energy of
atoms

KEY CONCEPTS
❶ How is the name of an element abbreviated and how does
the periodic table help to classify it as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid? (2.1)
• An element is abbreviated by a one- or two-letter symbol.
The periodic table contains a stepped line from boron
to astatine. All metals are located to the left of the line.
All nonmetals except hydrogen are located to the right
of the line. The seven elements located along the line are
metalloids.
❷ What are the basic components of an atom? (2.2)
• An atom is composed of two parts: a dense nucleus

containing positively charged protons and neutral neutrons,
and an electron cloud containing negatively charged
electrons. Most of the mass of an atom resides in the
nucleus, while the electron cloud contains most of its
volume.
• The atomic number (Z) of a neutral atom tells the number of
protons and the number of electrons. The mass number (A)
is the sum of the number of protons (Z) and the number of
neutrons.
❸ What are isotopes and how are they related to the atomic
weight? (2.3)
• Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons. The atomic weight is
the weighted average of the mass of the naturally occurring
isotopes of a particular element.

❹ What are the basic features of the periodic table? (2.4)
• The periodic table is a schematic of all known elements,
arranged in rows (periods) and columns (groups),
organized so that elements with similar properties are
grouped together.
• The vertical columns are assigned group numbers using two
different numbering schemes—1–8 plus the letters A or B;
or 1–18.
• The periodic table is divided into the main group elements
(groups 1A–8A), the transition metals (groups 1B–8B), and
the inner transition metals located at the bottom.
❺ How are electrons arranged around an atom? (2.5)
• Electrons occupy discrete energy levels, organized into
shells (numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on), subshells (s, p, d,

and f ), and orbitals.
• Each orbital can hold two electrons.
❻ What rules determine the electronic configuration of an
atom? (2.6)
• To write the ground state electronic configuration of an
atom, electrons are added to the lowest energy orbitals,
giving each orbital two electrons. When two orbitals are
equal in energy, one electron is added to each orbital until
the orbitals are half-filled.
• Orbital diagrams that use boxes for orbitals and arrows
for electrons indicate electronic configuration. Electron
configuration can also be shown using superscripts to show
how many electrons an orbital contains. For example, the
electron configuration of the six electrons in a carbon atom
is 1s22s22p2.

• Macro-to-Micro Illustrations Because today’s students are visual learners, and because
visualizing molecular-level representations of macroscopic phenomena is critical to the
understanding of any chemistry course, many illustrations in this text include photos or
drawings of everyday objects, paired with their molecular representation, to help students
visualize and understand the chemistry behind ordinary occurrences.
• Problem Solving Sample Problems lead students through the thought process tied to successful problem solving by employing Analysis and Solution parts. Sample Problems are
categorized sequentially by topic to match chapter organization, and are often paired with practice problems to allow students to apply what they have just learned. Students can immediately
verify their answers to the follow-up problems in the appendix at the end of the book.
• How To’s Key processes are taught to students in a straightforward and easy-to-understand
manner by using examples and multiple, detailed steps to solving problems.
• Applications Common applications of chemistry to everyday life are found in margin-placed
Health Notes, Consumer Notes, and Environmental Notes, as well as sections entitled “Focus
on Health & Medicine,” “Focus on the Environment,” and “Focus on the Human Body.”


OUR COMMITMENT TO SERVING TEACHERS AND LEARNERS
TO THE INSTRUCTOR Writing a new chemistry textbook is a colossal task. Teaching chemistry for over 20 years at both a private, liberal arts college and a large state university has given
me a unique perspective with which to write this text. I have found that students arrive with vastly
different levels of preparation and widely different expectations for their college experience. As
an instructor and now an author I have tried to channel my love and knowledge of chemistry into
a form that allows this spectrum of students to understand chemical science more clearly, and
then see everyday phenomena in a new light.
TO THE STUDENT I hope that this text and its ancillary program will help you to better
understand and appreciate the world of chemistry. My interactions with thousands of students in
my long teaching career have profoundly affected the way I teach and write about chemistry, so
please feel free to email me with any comments or questions at

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P.A.V.E. the Way to Student Learning
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5.2

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of glucose (C6H12O6) with oxygen (O2) to form
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

ANALYSIS

Balance an equation with coefficients, one element at a time, beginning with the most complex
formula and starting with an element that appears in only one formula on both sides of the
equation. Continue placing coefficients until the number of atoms of each element is equal on
both sides of the equation.

Practice chemistry through


SOLUTION
[1]

Write the equation with correct formulas.
C6H12O6 + O2

stepped-out practice problems and
end-of-chapter problems categorized
sequentially by topic to match chapter
organization. How-To boxes offer
step-by-step strategies for difficult
concepts.

CO2 + H2O

glucose

• None of the elements is balanced in this equation. As an example, there are 6 C’s on the left
side, but only 1 C on the right side.

[2]

Balance the equation with coefficients one element at a time.
• Begin with glucose, since its formula is most complex. Balance the 6 C’s of glucose
by placing the coefficient 6 before CO2. Balance the 12 H’s of glucose by placing the
coefficient 6 before H2O.
Place a 6 to balance C’s.

C6H12O6


Bagels, pasta, bread, and
rice are high in starch, which
is hydrolyzed to the simple
carbohydrate glucose after
ingestion. The metabolism of
glucose forms CO2 and H2O
and provides energy for bodily
functions.

+

6 CO2

O2

+

6 H2O

Place a 6 to balance H’s.

• The right side of the equation now has 18 O’s. Since glucose already has 6 O’s on the left
side, 12 additional O’s are needed on the left side. The equation will be balanced if the
coefficient 6 is placed before O2.
C6H12O6

+

6 CO2


6 O2

6 H2O

+

Place a 6 to balance O’s.

[3]

Check.

HOW TO

Convert Moles of Reactant to Grams of Product

• The equation is balanced since the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides.

Answer:

C6H12O6

+

6 O2

6 CO2

Atoms in the reactants:
• 6 C’s

• 12 Hs
ã 18 Os (1 ì 6 Os) + (6 ì 2 O’s)

PROBLEM 5.4

EXAMPLE In the upper atmosphere, high-energy radiation from the sun converts oxygen (O2) to ozone (O3). Using the bal-

6 H2O

Atoms in the products:
ã 6 Cs (6 ì 1C)
ã 12 Hs (6 ì 2Hs)
ã 18 Os (6 ì 2 O’s) + (6 × 1 O)

anced equation, how many grams of O3 are formed from 9.0 mol of O2?
3 O2(g)

Step [1]

H2 O
NO2

b. NO + O2

sunlight

2 O3(g)

Convert the number of moles of reactant to the number of moles of product using a mole–mole conversion factor.


• Use the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation to write mole–mole conversion factors.

Write a balanced equation for each reaction.
a. H2 + O2

PROBLEM 5.5

+

c. Fe + O2

Fe2O3

3 mol O2
2 mol O3

CH2Cl2 + HCl

d. CH4 + Cl2

Write a balanced equation for the following reaction, shown with molecular art.

or

2 mol O3

Choose this conversion
factor to cancel mol O2.

3 mol O2


• Multiply the number of moles of starting material (9.0 mol) by the conversion factor to give the number of moles
of product. In this example, 6.0 mol of O3 are formed.

C
Moles of
reactant

9.0 mol O2

O

Moles of
product

2 mol O3
3 mol O2

×

=

6.0 mol O3

Moles O2 cancel.

Step [2]

Convert the number of moles of product to the number of grams of product using the product’s molar mass.


• Use the molar mass of the product (O3) to write a conversion factor. The molar mass of O3 is 48.0 g/mol
(3 O atoms × 16.0 g/mol for each O atom = 48.0 g/mol).
1 mol O3
48.0 g O3

or

48.0 g O3

Choose this conversion
factor to cancel mol.

1 mol O3

• Multiply the number of moles of product (from step [1]) by the conversion factor to give the number of grams of
product.
Moles of
product

Grams of
product

6.0 mol O3

48.0 g O3

×

1 mol O3


=

288 g, rounded to 290 g of O3
Answer

Moles cancel.

14.6 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE
ETHANOL, THE MOST WIDELY ABUSED DRUG

Apply chemistry through “Focus on

Throughout history, humans have ingested alcoholic beverages for their pleasant taste and the
feeling of euphoria they impart. Although we think of alcohol as a stimulant, largely because small
amounts decrease social inhibitions, the ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in an alcoholic beverage actually
depresses the central nervous system. The chronic and excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages has become a major health and social crisis, making ethanol the most widely abused drug in the
United States. One estimate suggests that there are 40 times more alcoholics than heroin addicts.

Health & Medicine,” “Focus on the Human
Body,” and “Focus on the
Environment” sections
ENVIRONMENTAL NOTE
woven throughout the text.
Chemistry applications are
also woven into margin
Ethanol is used as a gasoline
additive. Although some of the
notes that cover topics
ethanol used for this purpose
comes from corn and other

grains, much of it is still produced
on consumer, health, and
by the reaction of ethylene with
water. Ethanol produced from
grains is a renewable resource,
environmental issues.
whereas ethanol produced from
ethylene is not, because ethylene
is made from crude oil. Thus,
running your car on gasohol
(gasoline mixed with ethanol)
reduces our reliance on fossil
fuels only if the ethanol is produced from renewable sources
such as grains or sugarcane.

14.6A

THE METABOLISM OF ETHANOL

When ethanol is consumed, it is quickly absorbed in the stomach and small intestines and then
rapidly transported in the bloodstream to other organs. Ethanol is metabolized in the liver, by a
two-step oxidation sequence. The body does not use chromium reagents as oxidants. Instead,
high molecular weight enzymes, alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, and a
small molecule called a coenzyme carry out these oxidations.
The products of the biological oxidation of ethanol are the same as the products formed in the
laboratory. When ethanol (CH3CH2OH, a 1° alcohol) is ingested, it is oxidized in the liver first to
CH3CHO (acetaldehyde), and then to CH3COOH (acetic acid).
O

CH3CH2

ethanol

While alcohol use is socially
acceptable, alcohol-related traffic
fatalities are common with irresponsible alcohol consumption. In 2004,
almost 40% of all fatalities in car
crashes in the United States were
alcohol-related.

xxiv

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OH

[O]
alcohol
dehydrogenase

CH3

O

[O]

C

H

acetaldehyde


aldehyde
dehydrogenase

CH3

C

OH

acetic acid

If more ethanol is ingested than can be metabolized in a given time period, the concentration of
acetaldehyde accumulates. This toxic compound is responsible for the feelings associated with
a hangover.
Antabuse, a drug given to alcoholics to prevent them from consuming alcoholic beverages, acts
by interfering with the normal oxidation of ethanol. Antabuse inhibits the oxidation of acetaldehyde to acetic acid. Since the first step in ethanol metabolism occurs but the second does not, the
concentration of acetaldehyde rises, causing an individual to become violently ill.


▼

FIGURE 5.2

Chemistry of an Automobile Airbag
b. An airbag deployed in a head-on collision

a. The chemical reaction that inflates an airbag

inflated airbag


inflator
crash sensor
Na

N2

NaN3
sodium azide

A severe car crash triggers an airbag to deploy when an electric sensor causes sodium azide (NaN3) to ignite, converti
(Na) and nitrogen gas (N2). The nitrogen gas causes the bag to inflate fully in 40 milliseconds, helping to protect passen
injury. The sodium atoms formed in this first reaction are hazardous and subsequently converted to a safe sodium salt
develop a reliable airbag system for automobiles.

▼

FIGURE 6.6

Temperature Regulation in the Body
hypothalamus—the
temperature controller

Visualize chemistry through a dynamic art program
that brings together macroscopic and microscopic
representations of images to help students comprehend
on a molecular level. Many illustrations include photos or
drawings of everyday objects, paired with their molecular
representation, to help students understand the chemistry
behind ordinary occurrences. Many illustrations of the

human body include magnifications for specific anatomic
regions, as well as representations at the microscopic level,
for today’s visual learners.

hair
skin

Sweat glands are stimulated when
temperature increases to cool the
body by evaporation.

Blood vessels dilate to release
more heat or constrict to release
less heat as temperature changes.
sensory nerve ending

sweat gland
capillaries

nerve

When the temperature in the environment around the body changes, the body works to
counteract the change, in a method similar to Le Châtelier’s principle. The hypothalamus
acts as a thermostat, which signals the body to respond to temperature changes. When the
temperature increases, the body must dissipate excess heat by dilating blood vessels and
sweating. When the temperature decreases, blood vessels constrict and the body shivers.

CARBOHYDRATES

626


20.5 DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides. Disaccharides are
acetals, compounds that contain two alkoxy groups (OR groups) bonded to the same carbon.
Recall from Section 16.8 that reaction of a hemiacetal with an alcohol forms an acetal.
hemiacetal

O
OH

+

acetal

O

CH3OH

OCH3

+

H2O

In a similar fashion, a disaccharide results when a hemiacetal of one monosaccharide reacts with
a hydroxyl group of a second monosaccharide to form an acetal. The new C O bond that joins
the two rings together is called a glycosidic linkage.
hemiacetal
5


glycosidic linkage
5

O

4

1
3

OH

+

HO

2

O

4

1
3

O

O
OH


1

O

OH

4

+

H2O

2

general structure
of a disaccharide
[The acetal O’s are labeled in red.]

The two monosaccharide rings may be five-membered or six-membered. All disaccharides
contain at least one acetal that joins the rings together. Each ring is numbered beginning at the
anomeric carbon, the carbon in each ring bonded to two oxygen atoms.
The glycosidic linkage that joins the two monosaccharides in a disaccharide can be oriented in
two different ways, shown with Haworth projections in structures A and B.
O

H
4
O

H


H
4

H
1
O

OH

O

H

H

OH

OH

O

1
H

𝛂 glycoside

Maltose gets its name from malt, the
liquid obtained from barley used in
the brewing of beer.


The glycoside bond is down.
1

4-α-glycosidic linkage
A

H
OH

O

Engage students with a unique writing
style that matches the method in which
students learn. Key points of general,
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𝛃 glycoside
The glycoside bond is up.
1

4-β-glycosidic linkage
B

• An 𝛂 glycoside has the glycosidic linkage oriented down, below the plane of the ring that
contains the acetal joining the monosaccharides.

• A 𝛃 glycoside has the glycosidic linkage oriented up, above the plane of the ring that
contains the acetal joining the monosaccharides.
glycosidic linkage

Numbers are used to designate which ring atoms are joined in the disaccharide. Disaccharide A
has a 1→4-𝛂-glycosidic linkage since the glycoside bond is oriented down and joins C1 of one
ring to C4 of the other. Disaccharide B has a 1→4-𝛃-glycosidic linkage since the glycoside bond
is oriented up and joins C1 of one ring to C4 of the other.

maltose

Sample Problem 20.6 illustrates these structural features in the disaccharide maltose. Maltose,
which is formed by the hydrolysis of starch, is found in grains such as barley. Maltose is formed
from two molecules of glucose.

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