Introductory
Chemistry
SE V EN T H EDI T ION

An Active Learning Approach

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Introductory
Chemistry
SE V EN T H EDI T ION

An Active Learning Approach

Mark S. Cracolice
University of Montana

Edward I. Peters

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Introductory Chemistry: An Active L
­ earning
Approach, Seventh Edition
Mark S. Cracolice, Edward I. Peters
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Dedication
This book is dedicated to the memory of my late mother, Marjorie Sharp,
the Worthy Advisor.

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Contents Overview
1


Introduction to Chemistry and Introduction to Active Learning 1

2

Matter and Energy 17

3

Measurement and Chemical Calculations 57

4

Introduction to Gases 117

5

Atomic Theory: The Nuclear Model of the Atom 153

6

Chemical Nomenclature 185

7

Chemical Formula Relationships 233

8

Chemical Reactions 267


9

Chemical Change 303

10

Quantity Relationships in Chemical Reactions 345

11

Atomic Theory: The Quantum Model of the Atom 393

12

Chemical Bonding 439

13

Structure and Shape 467

14

The Ideal Gas Law and Its Applications 513

15

Gases, Liquids, and Solids 551

16


Solutions 601

17

Acid–Base (Proton Transfer) Reactions 661

18

Chemical Equilibrium 697

19

Oxidation–Reduction (Electron Transfer) Reactions 749

20

Nuclear Chemistry 783

21

Organic Chemistry 817

22

Biochemistry 875
Appendix I  Chemical Calculations 
Appendix II  The SI System Of Units 
Glossary 


913
919

923

Index  939


vii

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Contents

1.1

Introduction to Chemistry: Lavoisier
and the Beginning of Experimental
Chemistry 2

1.2

Introduction to Chemistry: Science
and the Scientific Method 4

1.3Introduction to Chemistry: The
Science of Chemistry Today 5


1.4Introduction to Active Learning:
Learning How to Learn Chemistry 6

1.5Introduction to Active Learning: Your
Textbook 11

1.6

A Choice 16

2 Matter and Energy  17
2.1 What Makes Up the Universe? 17
2.2Representations of Matter: Models and Symbols 18
2.3 States of Matter 21
2.4Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes 25
Everyday Chemistry 2.1  The Ultimate Physical Property? 29
2.5 Pure Substances and Mixtures 30
2.6 Separation of Mixtures 33
2.7 Elements and Compounds 35
2.8 The Electrical Character of Matter 41
2.9 Characteristics of a Chemical Change 42
2.10Conservation Laws and Chemical Change 44

3 Measurement and Chemical Calculations  57
3.1 How Is Time Measured? 57
3.2 Scientific Notation 58
3.3 Conversion Factors 63
3.4A Strategy for Solving Quantitative Chemistry Problems 67
3.5 Introduction to Measurement 73
3.6 Metric Units 73

3.7 Significant Figures 80
3.8 Significant Figures in Calculations 83
Everyday Chemistry 3.1  Should the United States Convert to
Metric Units? An Editorial 89

3.9

Metric–USCS Conversions 90

3.10Temperature 93
viii

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Mindaugas Dulinskas/Shutterstock.com

1 Introduction to Chemistry
and Introduction to Active
Learning 1


3.11 Proportionality and Density 96
3.12 Thoughtful and Reflective
Practice 101

4.1

Are the Gas Giants… Gas
Giants? 118


4.2 Characteristics of Gases 119
4.3A Particulate-Level Explanation of the
Characteristics of Gases 121

4.4

Gas Pressure 123

Everyday Chemistry 4.1 The

Art Directors & TRIP/Alamy Stock Photo

4 Introduction to Gases  117

Weather Machine 130

4.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 131
4.6 Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure 136
4.7The Combined Gas Law: Volume, Temperature, and Pressure 140

5 Atomic Theory: The Nuclear Model of the Atom  153
5.1 Have the Elements Always Existed? 153
5.2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 155
5.3 The Electron 158
5.4The Nuclear Atom and Subatomic Particles 159
5.5Isotopes 163
5.6 Atomic Mass 166
5.7 The Periodic Table 169
5.8Elemental Symbols and the Periodic Table 172

Everyday Chemistry 5.1  International Relations and the
Periodic Table 173

6 Chemical Nomenclature  185
6.1

Is It Soda or Pop or Coke? 185

6.2Review of Selected Concepts Related to Nomenclature 187
6.3

Formulas of Elements 190

6.4

Compounds Made from T wo Nonmetals 192

6.5Names and Formulas of Monatomic Ions: Group 1A/1 and 2A/2 Metals
and the Nonmetals 194

6.6Names and Formulas of Monatomic Ions: Additional Metals 198
6.7

Formulas of Ionic Compounds 200

6.8

Names of Ionic Compounds 203

Everyday Chemistry 6.1  Common Names

of Chemicals 205


ix

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6.9

The Nomenclature of Oxoacids 207

6.10 The Nomenclature of Oxoanions 213
6.11 The Nomenclature of Acid Anions 218
6.12 The Nomenclature of Hydrates 219
6.13 Summary of the Nomenclature System 220

7 Chemical Formula Relationships  233
7.1How Do You Weigh Something Too Small to
The Number of Atoms in a Formula 235

7.3

Molecular Mass and Formula Mass 236

7.4

Stoichiometric Amount 237


7.5

Molar Mass 239

7.6Conversion Among Mass, Amount in Moles, and Number of Units 241
7.7Mass Relationships Among Elements in a Compound: Percentage
Composition by Mass 243

7.8

Empirical Formula of a Compound 247

Everyday Chemistry 7.1  How to Read a Food Label 253
7.9

Determination of a Molecular Formula 254

8 Chemical Reactions  267
8.1Do Chemical Reactions Occur Outside of Earth? 268
8.2

Evidence of a Chemical Change 269

8.3

Evolution of a Chemical Equation 271

8.4

Balancing Chemical Equations 273


8.5

Interpreting Chemical Equations 278

8.6

Writing Chemical Equations 280

8.7

Combination Reactions 280

8.8

Decomposition Reactions 282

Everyday Chemistry 8.1 Femtochemistry 285
8.9

Single-Replacement Reactions 286

8.10 Double-Replacement Reactions 288
8.11 Summary of Reactions and Equations 291

9 Chemical Change  303
9.1Why Is Salt Solution Different from Sugar Solution? 303
9.2

Electrolytes and Solution Conductivity 305


9.3

Solutions of Ionic Compounds 307

x

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NASA

Weigh? 234

7.2


9.4

Strong and Weak Acids 310

9.5Net Ionic Equations: What They Are
and How to Write Them 313

9.6Single-Replacement Oxidation–
Reduction (Redox) Reactions 316

9.7Oxidation–Reduction Reactions of

Everyday Chemistry 9.1 An

Every-Moment Type of Chemical
Reaction 323

9.8Double-Replacement Precipitation
Reactions 324

Bloomberg/Getty Images

Some Common Organic
Compounds 321

9.9Double-Replacement MoleculeFormation Reactions 328

Everyday Chemistry 9.2  Green Chemistry 329
9.10Double-Replacement Reactions That Form Unstable Products 332
9.11Double-Replacement Reactions with Undissolved Reactants 334
9.12 Other Double-Replacement Reactions 334
9.13 Summary of Net Ionic Equations 335

10 Quantity Relationships in Chemical
Reactions 345
10.1Okay, Houston, We’ve Had a Problem Here 345
10.2Conversion Factors from a Chemical Equation 347
10.3 Mass–Mass Stoichiometry 350
Everyday Chemistry 10.1  The Stoichiometry of CO2
Emissions in Automobile Exhaust 356
10.4 Percentage Yield 357
10.5 Limiting Reactants: The Problem 362
10.6Limiting Reactants: Comparison-of-Moles Method 364
10.7Limiting Reactants: Smaller-Amount Method 367

10.8Energy 370
10.9 Thermochemical Equations 371
10.10Thermochemical Stoichiometry 373

11 Atomic Theory: The Quantum Model
of the Atom  393
11.1 What Causes the Northern Lights? 394
11.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 395


xi

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11.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen
Atom 400

11.4The Quantum Mechanical Model of the
Atom 403

11.5 Electron Configuration 408
Everyday Chemistry 11.1 Simply
Pure Darn Foolishness? 409
11.6 Valence Electrons 416

12 Chemical Bonding  439
12.1How Did the Chemistry of the Universe
Begin? 439


12.2Monatomic Ions with Noble Gas Electron Configurations 441
12.3 Ionic Bonds 444
12.4 Covalent Bonds 447
12.5 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 450
12.6 Multiple Bonds 453
12.7Atoms That Are Bonded to T wo or More Other Atoms 454
12.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 455
12.9 Metallic Bonds 456
Everyday Chemistry 12.1  The Influence of Bonding on
Macroscopic Properties 458

13 Structure and Shape  467
13.1How Is Genetic Information Stored in Molecules? 467
13.2 Drawing Lewis Diagrams 469
13.3Electron-Pair Repulsion: Electron-Pair Geometry 479
13.4 Molecular Geometry 481
13.5 The Geometry of Multiple Bonds 488
Everyday Chemistry 13.1 Chirality 489
13.6 Polarity of Molecules 492
13.7The Structures of Some Organic Compounds (Optional) 495

14 The Ideal Gas Law and Its Applications  513
14.1How Are Tiny Gas Molecules Capable of Launching a Rocket? 514
14.2 Gases Revisited 515
14.3 Avogadro’s Law 516
14.4 The Ideal Gas Law 518
xii

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George G. Stanley

11.7 T rends in the Periodic Table 418


14.5The Ideal Gas Equation:
Determination of a Single
Variable 522

14.6 Gas Density 524
14.8Gas Stoichiometry at Standard
Temperature and Pressure 530

14.9Gas Stoichiometry: Molar Volume
Method (Option 1) 532

14.10Gas Stoichiometry: Ideal Gas
Equation Method (Option 2) 534

14.11Volume–Volume Gas

Candyfloss Film/Shutterstock.com

14.7 Molar Volume  527

Stoichiometry 537

Everyday Chemistry 14.1 

Automobile Air Bags 538

15 Gases, Liquids, and Solids  551
15.1Does Liquid Water Exist Beyond Planet Earth? 551
15.2 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 553
15.3 Properties of Liquids 556
15.4 Types of Intermolecular Forces 560
15.5 Liquid–Vapor Equilibrium 564
15.6 The Boiling Process 568
15.7 Water—An “Unusual” Compound 569
15.8 The Solid State 570
15.9 Types of Crystalline Solids 571
Everyday Chemistry 15.1  Buckyballs 574
15.10Energy and Change of State 575
15.11Energy and Change of Temperature: Specific Heat 579
15.12Change in Temperature Plus Change of State 581

16Solutions  601
16.1Are There Earth-Like Oceans on Other Planets? 601
16.2The Characteristics of a Solution 602
16.3Solution Terminology 603
16.4The Formation of a Solution 605
16.5Factors That Determine Solubility 608
16.6Solution Concentration: Percentage Concentration by Mass 611
16.7Solution Concentration: Molarity 613

Everyday Chemistry 16.1  The World’s Oceans: The Most
Abundant Solution 614

xiii


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16.8Solution Concentration: Molality
(Optional) 619

16.9Solution Concentration: Normality
(Optional) 621

16.10Solution Concentration: A
Summary 627

16.11Dilution of Concentrated
Solutions 627

16.13Titration Using Molarity 634
16.14Titration Using Normality
(Optional) 637

16.15Colligative Properties of Solutions
(Optional) 639

17 Acid–Base (Proton Transfer) Reactions  661
17.1Is the Existence of Acid Molecules Exclusive to Earth? 662
17.2The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases (Optional) 663
17.3The Brønsted–Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases 664
17.4The Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases (Optional) 667
17.5Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 668

17.6Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 670
17.7Predicting Acid–Base Reactions 673
17.8Acid–Base Reactions and Redox Reactions Compared 675
17.9The Water Equilibrium 675
17.10pH and pOH (Integer Values Only) 678
17.11Non-Integer pH2[H1] and pOH2[OH2] Conversions (Optional) 683
Everyday Chemistry 17.1  Acid–Base Reactions 684

18 Chemical Equilibrium  697
18.1What Patterns Characterize Reversible Chemical Equilibrium
Reactions? 697

18.2The Character of an Equilibrium 699
18.3The Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 701
18.4Energy Changes During a Molecular Collision 702
18.5Conditions That Affect the Rate of a Chemical Reaction 704
18.6The Development of a Chemical Equilibrium 708
18.7Le Chatelier’s Principle 708
18.8The Equilibrium Constant 715
Everyday Chemistry 18.1  Fertilization of the World’s Crops 716
xiv

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Charles D. Winters

16.12Solution Stoichiometry 630



18.9The Significance of the Value
of K 720

18.10Equilibrium Calculations: An
Introduction (Optional) 721

18.11Equilibrium Calculations: Solubility
Equilibria (Optional) 722

18.12Equilibrium Calculations: Ionization
Equilibria (Optional) 727
Equilibria (Optional) 732

19 Oxidation–Reduction (Electron
Transfer) Reactions  749

Charles D. Winters

18.13Equilibrium Calculations: Gaseous

19.1How do You Power a Vehicle on the Surface of the Moon? 750
19.2 Electron Transfer Reactions 751
19.3 Voltaic and Electrolytic Cells 756
19.4Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions 758
19.5 Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents 763
19.6Strengths of Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents 764
19.7 Predicting Redox Reactions 764
19.8 Redox Reactions and Acid–Base Reactions Compared 769
Everyday Chemistry 19.1 Batteries 770
19.9 Writing Redox Equations (Optional) 771


20 Nuclear Chemistry  783
20.1 How did Marie Curie Find Happiness in Difficult Working
Conditions? 783

20.2 The Dawn of Nuclear Chemistry 785
20.3Radioactivity 786
20.4 The Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity 787
20.5 The Effects of Radiation on Living Systems 789
20.6Half-Life 791
20.7 Natural Radioactive Decay Series—Nuclear Equations 795
20.8 Nuclear Reactions and Ordinary Chemical Reactions Compared 799
20.9 Nuclear Bombardment and Induced Radioactivity 799
20.10Uses of Radioisotopes 801
20.11Nuclear Fission 802
Everyday Chemistry 20.1  Medicine and Radioisotopes 803
20.12Electrical Energy from Nuclear Fission 805
20.13Nuclear Fusion 807


xv

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21 Organic Chemistry  817
21.1Are There Organic Molecules in Space? 818
21.2The Nature of Organic Chemistry 819
21.3The Molecular Structure of Compounds 820

21.4Saturated Hydrocarbons: The Alkanes and
Cycloalkanes 822

21.5Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: The Alkenes
and Alkynes 828

21.6Aromatic Hydrocarbons 832
Hydrocarbons 833

21.8Sources and Preparation of
Hydrocarbons 834

21.9Chemical Reactions of Hydrocarbons 835
21.10Uses of Hydrocarbons 837
21.11Alcohols and Ethers 838
21.12Aldehydes and Ketones 841
21.13Carboxylic Acids and Esters 844
21.14Amines and Amides 846
21.15Summary of the Organic Compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, and Nitrogen 848

Everyday Chemistry 21.1  “In Which the Shape’s
the Thing . . .” 849

21.16Chain-Growth Polymers 850
21.17Step-Growth Polymers 853

22Biochemistry  875
22.1 Is There Life on Other Planets? 877
22.2 Amino Acids and Proteins 877

22.3Enzymes 885
22.4Carbohydrates 886
22.5Lipids 893
22.6 Nucleic Acids 897
Everyday Chemistry 22.1  Designer Genes 902

Appendix I  Chemical Calculations 
Appendix II  The SI System Of Units 
Glossary 

913
919

923

Index  939
xvi

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Charles D. Winters

21.7Summary of the Categories ­of


Preface
Audience
The seventh edition of Introductory Chemistry: An Active Learning Approach is
written for a college-level introductory or preparatory chemistry course for students who next will take a college general chemistry course. It is also appropriate

for the first-term general portion of a two-term general, organic, and biological
chemistry (GOB) course. The textbook is written with the assumption that this is a
student’s first chemistry course, or if there has been a prior chemistry course, it has
not adequately prepared the student for general or GOB chemistry.

Overarching Goals
Introductory Chemistry was written with the following broad-based goals. Upon
completing the course while using this textbook, our aim is that students will be
able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Read, write, and talk about chemistry, using a basic chemical vocabulary.
Write routine chemical formulas and equations.
Set up and solve chemistry problems.
Think about fundamental chemistry on an atomic or molecular level and
­visualize what happens in a chemical change.

To reach these goals, Introductory Chemistry helps students deal with three
common problems: developing good learning skills, overcoming a weak background in mathematics, and overcoming difficulties in reading scientific material.
The first problem is addressed beginning in Sections 1.4–1.6, which together make
up an “Introduction to Active Learning.” These sections describe the pedagogical features of the textbook and how to use them effectively to learn chemistry as
efficiently as possible.
Introductory Chemistry deals with a weak quantitative problem-solving background beginning in Chapter 3. Algebra, including the use of conversion factors,
is presented as a problem-solving method that can be used for nearly all of the
quantitative problems in the textbook. The thought processes introduced in Chapter 3 are used throughout the text, constantly reinforcing the student’s ability to
solve quantitative problems.
We address difficulties in reading scientific material via many of the features

of the textbook. Clearly stated learning goals lead to carefully written narratives,
which are then often summarized in a numbered list. Key words are printed in
bold, summarized at the end of each chapter, and collected into a glossary. Chapter summaries are used to help students review as they complete each chapter.
Active learning techniques are used throughout to keep students engaged in learning while they are reading.

Active Learning
The An Active Learning Approach portion of the title of the textbook refers to what
general cognitive science and applied chemistry education research indicate is the
best curricular approach to facilitate construction of procedural knowledge.


xvii

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xviii

Preface

When we use the term procedural knowledge, we are referring to knowledge of how
to do something, such as solve quantitative chemistry problems, as opposed to
declarative knowledge, which is knowledge of facts. Both types of knowledge are
important in an introductory chemistry course; students must learn facts such as
the symbol for the element hydrogen is H, and they should learn how to calculate
the amount of water that will be produced when a given mass of hydrogen is reacted
with excess oxygen. However, declarative knowledge is relatively straightforward
to teach; it is mostly a matter of organization and making connections. Procedural
knowledge is relatively difficult to teach. It requires a curriculum centered on active

learning.
Evidence in support of our claim about active learning is strong. The work
of Scott Freeman of the University of Washington and associates provides an
excellent example.* They used a statistical approach called a meta-analysis that
combines results from many individual studies. This technique provides stronger
evidence than any given individual study. They compared active-learning-centered
classrooms with those that primarily relied on expository teaching, finding that
the active learning classrooms produced both better exam performance and
lower failure rates. Specifically, student performance on exams was about onehalf standard deviation higher in active learning classrooms and failure rates in
expository courses were 1.5 times the rate in active learning courses.
Active learning means that the student spends as much of his or her time as
possible invested into studying actively, working to construct knowledge. Most
textbooks engage students in active learning only while answering end-of-chapter
questions. Our book engages students in active learning while answering end-ofchapter questions and studying the body of the chapter. We next examine how we
accomplish this goal.

Active Examples
The examples in our textbook are written in a question-and-answer format in which
the student actively learns chemistry while studying an assignment, rather than
studying now with the intent to learn later. A typical example leads students through
a series of steps where they “listen” to the authors tutor them as they work the solution, step-by-step. As students solve the example problem, they actively write for
themselves each step in the solution, covering the authors’ answer with the shield
provided in the book. This example format turns the common passive “read the
authors’ solution” approach to an active “you solve the problem while we tutor you”
methodology.
To serve as an example of and explanation about this methodology, let’s break
down Active Example 10.4, the first mass-to-mass stoichiometry example in the
textbook. The problem statement comes first. The examples are numbered and
titled for easy reference.


Active Example 10.4  Mass–Mass Stoichiometry II
What is the mass in grams of CO2 that will be produced by burning 66.0 g C7H16 by the same reaction as in Active
Example 10.3, C7H16(<) 1 11 O2(g) S 7 CO2(g) 1 8 H2O(<)?

The next portion of the Active Example is titled Think Before You Write. This
feature has two purposes. One is to teach students to engage the portion of the

*Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P.
(2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(23), 8410–8415.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


mple,
which
ppears.
ue-shaded

nt. Write
in the
s located.
te”
ctive

veal the

e one you
you
point


Preface

xix

brain used for higher-order thinking, avoiding reacting impulsively.* The other
purpose is to help students learn how to extract the relevant information from a
problem statement, focusing on the deep structure rather than on the surface features.† Here, we begin by discussing how to analyze the problem statement from
the deep structure perspective. We then discuss the problem-solving approach
from the general perspective, divorced from the context of this specific problem.
At the end of the box, students are reminded to actively work the example for
themselves, covering our answers until they have produced their own.
Think Before You Write  You are given the mass of one species in a chemical change, and you are asked to determine
the mass of another species. Thus, you will switch from the macroscopic mass quantity to the particulate number of moles,
use the mole ratio in the chemical equation to determine the amount in moles of the wanted quantity, and then switch back to
the macroscopic level and determine the mass of that amount in grams. This is illustrated in Figure 10.4.
Answers  Cover the left column with your cut-out shield. Reveal each answer only after you have written your own answer in
the right column.

When appropriate, quantitative Active Examples are solved using a four-step
problem-solving approach: analyze, identify, construct, and check. In the ­analyze
step, students identify the given quantity and the unit of the wanted quantity.
Space is provided for students to write under the pencil icon.
Analyze the problem by writing the given quantity and

How to Work an Active Example
Step 1: When you come to an example,
locate the point in the left column at which
the first blue-shaded background appears.
Use this shield to cover all of the blue-shaded

boxes in the left column.

the unitHow
of the
wanted
to Work
an quantity.
Active Example
Step 1: When you come to an example,
locate the point in the left column at which
the first blue-shaded background appears.
Use this shield to cover all of the blue-shaded
boxes in the left column.

Students literally write their responses, making a commitment to reveal their
present state of understanding and recording it.
Step 2: Read the problem statement. Write
any answers or calculations needed in the
blank space where the pencil icon is located.
Note that the “Think Before You Write”
instructions
arean
different
each Active
How to Work
ActiveforExample
Example.

Step 2: Read the problem statement. Write
any answers or calculations needed in the

blank space where the pencil icon is located.
Analyze
thethat
problem
by writing
theWrite”
given quantity and
Note
the “Think
Before You
the unitinstructions
of the wanted
quantity.
are different
for each Active
Example.

Given: 66.0 g C7H16
g CO shield down to reveal the
  Wanted:
Step 3: Move the 2

Step 3:
1: Move
When the
youshield
comedown
to an to
example,
Step

reveal the
locate
the
point
in
the
left
column
at which
first blue-shaded box.
first blue-shaded box.
the first blue-shaded background appears.
Use this shield to cover all of the blue-shaded
boxes4:
in Compare
the left column.
Step
your answer to the one you
Step 4: Compare your answer to the one you
can
now
read
in
the
book.
Be
sure
you
They then reveal the authors’ answer, comparing their answercan
tonow

thatread
of inanthe book. Be sure you
understand
the
example
up
to
that
point
understand
the example up to that point
expert. If Step
the answers
match,
their
correctWrite
thinking is reinforced. If the answers
2: Read the
problem
statement.
before going on.
before going on.
any answers
calculations
needed
in the at the specific point at which they
don’t match,
studentsorget
immediate
feedback

blank space
where the
pencil
icon is located. process. Earlier in the textbook,
don’t correctly
understand
the
problem-solving
Note that
the guidance
“Think
Before
Write”
Step
5: Repeat
the procedure
until
youto
finish
Step before
5: Repeat
we gave overarching
to You
students
go back to the narrative
thethe procedure until you finish
instructions
are different for each Active
the
example.

the example.
Active Example when this occurs and figure out what is wrong.
Example.
Step
3: Move
the shield
the S. (2007). Neural correlates of fluid r­ easoning
*Wright, S. B.,
Matlen,
B. J., Baym,
C. L.,down
Ferrer,toE.,reveal
& Bunge,
first
blue-shaded
box.
in children and
adults.
Frontiers in
Human Neuroscience, 1(8), doi: 10.3389/neuro.09.008.2007.
†Chi,

M. T. H., & VanLehn, K. A., (2012). Seeing deep structure from the interactions of surface features.
Educational Psychologist,
47(3), 177–188.
Step 4: Compare
your answer to the one you

can now read in the book. Be sure you
understand the example up to that point

Copyright 2021 Cengage
Learning.
All Rights
before
going
on.Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


xx

Preface

Analyze the problem by writing the given quantity and

Given: 66.0 g C7H16
Wanted: g CO2

the unit of the wanted quantity.

Given: 66.0 g C7H16
  Wanted: g CO2

The second step in our four-step approach is the identify step. Here we introduce the unit path approach, where students first write the units for each step in
the solution setup. We then instruct them to identify the equivalency that connects
each pair of units. After that, the equivalencies are changed to conversion factors.
Equivalency and conversion factors are introduced in Section 3.3 and used continuously from that point forward.

g C7H16 S mol C7H16 S mol CO2 S g CO2
1 mol C7H16 5 100.20 g C7H16

7 mol CO2 5 1 mol C7H16

The next step is to identify the equivalencies. With ­multiplestep problems such as this, it can be helpful to write the
units for each step before you write the equivalencies:
g C7H16 S mol C7H16 S mol CO2 S g CO2

44.01 g CO2 5 1 mol CO2
1 mol C7H16
100.20 g C7H16

7 mol CO2
1 mol C7H16

44.01 g CO2
1 mol CO2

Each arrow in this unit path requires an equivalency.
Change the equivalencies to conversion factors.

 

g C7H16 S mol C7H16 S mol CO2 S g CO2
1 mol C7H16 5 100.20 g C7H16
7 mol CO2 5 1 mol C7H16
44.01 g CO2 5 1 mol CO2
1 mol C7H16
100.20 g C7H16

7 mol CO2
1 mol C7H16


44.01 g CO2
1 mol CO2

The majority of the challenging part of problem solving is complete at this
point. Through our Active Example approach, students learn that identification
of the given and wanted and deduction of equivalencies that link pairs of units are
the keys to quantitative problem solving in introductory chemistry. The third step
of the four-step approach is to construct the solution setup. Here, students confirm
that the units cancel correctly, and we literally show the cancellation lines in the
textbook and encourage students to do the same, and then they calculate the value
(quantity 3 unit) of the answer.

66.0 g C7H16 3
3

1 mol C7H16
7 mol CO2
3
100.20 g C7H16 1 mol C7H16
44.01 g CO2
5 203 g CO2
1 mol CO2

Construct the solution setup and determine the

answer.

 


66.0 g C7H16 3
3

1 mol C7H16
7 mol CO2
3
100.20 g C7H16 1 mol C7H16
44.01 g CO2
5 203 g CO2
1 mol CO2

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


Preface

xxi

The fourth step in the four-step approach has two parts. One aim is to have
students do mental arithmetic to the point where the answer obtained from a calculator is verified as reasonable, and a second aim is to teach students to reflect on
how they have improved their problem-solving skills. Here, we guide students to
be flexible in their choices in doing the calculation check.

(60 3 7) 3 50 4 100 5 420 3 (50 4 100) 5 420 3 0.5
5 210, OK.
(70 3 7) 3 40 4 100 5 490 3 (40 4 100) < 500 3 0.4
5 200, OK.

The check of a setup with a large number of values

becomes a bit challenging. You have to round the numbers,
aiming to round in opposite directions. For example, this
setup could be estimated as 60 (round down) 3 7 3 50
(round up) 4 100 or 70 (round up) 3 7 3 40 (round down)
4 100. Remember that the goal is to be sure you in are in
the ballpark, not to calculate the exact answer in your head.

 

(60 3 7) 3 50 4 100 5 420 3 (50 4 100) 5 420 3 0.5
5 210, OK.

The second part of the fourth step is to encourage students to think about
the purpose of the Active Example and to contemplate if they have successfully
achieved that purpose. This step is designed to invoke metacognition* so that students become explicitly aware of and make conscious the thought processes that
they just learned.

You improved your skill at solving mass–mass stoichiometry
problems.

What did you learn by solving this Active Example?

 
I am beginning to understand the mass given S amount
given S amount wanted S mass wanted problem solving
strategy.

Finally, each Active Example is followed by a practice exercise that is based
on the deep structure of the example that comes immediately before it. This allows
the student who correctly solved the example to receive reinforcement and the student who did not solve the example correctly an opportunity to solve a parallel

problem correctly before moving to the next topic. Solutions to the practice exercises are at the end of each chapter.

Practice Exercise 10.4
What mass of fluorine is formed when 3.0 grams of bromine trifluoride decomposes into its elements?

*Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental
inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.
Rickey, D., & Stacy, A. M. (2000). The role of metacognition in learning chemistry. Journal of Chemical
Education, 77(7), 915–920.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


xxii

Preface

Target Checks
When a multistep Active Example is not warranted, we use another active learning
feature termed Target Checks. These are just-in-time, fundamental questions, primarily utilized with nonquantitative topics, that help students monitor their progress as they work instead of waiting for the end-of-chapter questions so that they
can identify and diagnose incomplete understandings or misunderstandings as
they study. As an example, Target Check 14.1 is from the “Avogadro’s Law” section:

Target Check 14.1
a

5

10


15

20

b

A horizontal cylinder (a) is closed at one end by a piston that moves freely left or right, depending
on the pressure exerted by the enclosed gas. The gas consists of 10 two-atom molecules. A r­ eaction
occurs in which five of the molecules separate into one-atom particles. In cylinder (b), sketch the
position to which the piston would move as a result of the reaction. Pressure and temperature remain
constant throughout the process. (Hint: How many total particles would be present after the reaction?
Include them in your sketch.)

Order of Coverage: A Flexible Format
Topics in a preparatory course or the general portion of a general–organic–­
biological chemistry course may be presented in several logical sequences, one of
which is the order in which they appear in this textbook. However, it is common for
individual instructors to prefer a different organization. Introductory Chemistry
has been written to accommodate these different preferences by carefully writing
each topic so that regardless of when it is assigned, it never assumes knowledge of
any concept that an instructor might reasonably choose to assign later in the
course. If some prior information is needed at a given point, it may be woven into
the text as a Preview to the extent necessary to ensure continuity for students who
have not seen it before, while affording a brief Review for those who have. (See the
following P/Review.) At other times, margin notes are used to supply the needed
information. Occasionally, digressions in small print are inserted for the same purpose. There is also an Option feature that actually identifies the alternatives for
some topics. In essence, we have made a conscious effort to be sure that all students
have all the background they need for any topic whenever they reach it.
P/Review  Information and section references are provided in the narrative or as a note in the

margin showing students where to find relevant information before or after a given section.

Introductory Chemistry also offers choices in how some topics are presented.
The most noticeable example of this is the coverage of gases, which is spread over
two chapters. Chapter 4 introduces the topic through the P-V-T combined gas
laws. This allows application of the problem-solving principles from Chapter 3

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


Preface

immediately after they are taught. Then the topic is picked up again in Chapter 14,
which introduces the Ideal Gas Law. An instructor is free to move Chapter 4 to
immediately precede Chapter 14, should a single “chapter” on gases be preferred.
We have a two-chapter treatment of chemical reactivity with a qualitative
emphasis, preceding the quantitative chapter on stoichiometry. Chapter 8 ­provides
an introduction to chemical reactivity, with an emphasis on writing and balancing chemical equations and recognizing reaction types based on the nature of the
equation. After students have become confident with the fundamentals, we then
increase the level of sophistication of our presentation on chemical change by introducing solutions of ionic compounds and net ionic equations. Chapter 9 on chemical change in solution may be postponed to any point after Chapter 8. C
­ hapter 8
alone provides a sufficient background in chemical equation writing and balancing
to allow students to successfully understand stoichiometry, the topic of Chapter 10.
You may wish to combine Chapter 9 with Chapter 16 on solutions.
Chapter 14 features sections that offer alternative ways to solve gas stoichiometry
problems at given temperatures and pressures. You can choose the section that you
want to assign. Section 14.9 is based on what we call the molar volume method, where
molar volume is used as a conversion factor to change between amount of substance
in moles and volume. Section 14.10 is based on what we term the ideal gas equation

method, where PV 5 nRT and algebra is the method to make the amount–volume
conversion.
On a smaller scale, there are minor concepts that are commonly taught in different ways. These may be identified specifically in the book, or mentioned only
briefly, but always with the same advice to the student: Learn the method that is
presented in lecture. If your instructor’s method is different from anything in the
book, learn it the way your instructor teaches it. Our aim is to have the book support the classroom presentation, whatever it may be.

Readability
We aim to help students overcome difficulties in reading scientific material by discussing chemistry in simple, direct, and user-friendly language. Maintaining the
book’s readability continues to be a primary focus in this edition. The book features relatively short sections and chapters to facilitate learning and to provide
flexibility in ordering topics.

Features
Active Examples  Active Examples were described in detail previously. An Active
Example is an active learning feature that is formatted in two columns. The left
column (the authors’ answers) is to be covered by students while they write their
own answers in the space provided in the right column. As students actively work
through and complete the solution in the right column, they can reveal the solution to each step in the left column, thereby receiving immediate feedback about
their understanding of the concept as it is being formed. Each example is titled
so that students can better identify the concept or problem-solving skill they are
learning. This will be useful when reviewing for exams.
Practice Exercises Each Active Example is followed immediately by a parallel Practice Exercise designed to firm up the potentially fragile new knowledge
that was just constructed during the process of completing the companion Active
Example. The Practice Exercises cover the same concept as the Active Examples,
but they are typically slightly more challenging, leading students toward improved
conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. Solutions to the Practice
Exercises are provided at the end of each chapter.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.


xxiii